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SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM SCIENCE HANDBOOKS. 

[BRANCH MUSEUM, BETHNAL GREEN.] 

FOOD, 



FOOD 



SOME ACCOUNT OF ITS SOURCES, CONSTITUENTS 

AND USES. 



W T-Jv' r^T-JTTT; 



AT Hr CHURCH, M.A., Oxon, 

Professor of Chemistry in the Agricultural College, Cirencester, 





Published for the Committee of Council on Education 



IRIBNER, WELFORD, & ARMSTRONG, NEW YORK 9 

1877. 



-»? 






CHARLES DICKENS AND EYAN3, 

Crystal palace press. 



CONTENTS. 

PART I. — Of Food in General. 

PAGE 

i. The Uses of Food i 

2. Composition of the Human Body 3 

3. The Classification of Food 9 

4. Water as Food ..../.... 10 

5. Salts or Mineral Matter in Food 23 

6. Carbon Compounds or Heat-Givers 26 

7. Nitrogenous Compounds or Flesh-Formers ... 40 

8. A Day's Ration . . 48 

PART II.— Of Vegetable Foods. 

1. The Cereals or Bread Stuffs 57 

2. Pulse, &c. . 82 

3. Roots and Tubers . . . . 87 

4. Leaves, Stems, Stalks, and Whole Plants ... 97 

5. Saccharine and Oily Fruits 112 

PART III.— Of Animal Foods. 

1. Milk and Dairy Produce . . . . . . .132 

2. Eggs . 146 

3. Butchers' Meat . . . . . . . . .148 

4. Poultry, Game, &c .' . 155 

5. Fish, &c. . 158 

6. Bacon and Preserved Meats ...... 161 



vili CONTENTS. 



PART IV.— Of Food- Adjuncts. 



PAGE 



§ i. Beer, Wine, and Spirits 169 

§ 2. Condiments, Spices, and Flavourers . . . .184 

§ 3. Vinegar, Pickles, and Acids 193 

§ 4. Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa 196 

§ 5. Tobacco and Opium 203 

PART V.— Of Diet and Dietaries. 

§ 1. Food-equivalents 208 

§ 2. Public Dietaries 213 

§ 3. National Foods . . . 216 

§ 4. Ancient Foods 218 

Index *. . . . . . .221 



PREFACE. 

scope and uses This book is meant to serve two ends. In the first 

of the Present , ... 1lr . 

volume. place it is intended for the instruction of those visitors 

to the Bethnal Green Museum who may wish to study the collection 
of food-products there displayed. Secondly, it has been so written 
that its pages may be read, it is hoped with profit, apart from any 
such exhibition of the actual materials of food. 
origin of the A few words concerning the origin and character 

Food Collection. Qf ^ Food Collection may fitly here be giyen> The 

first suggestion of such a series was made by Thomas Twining, Esq., 
of Perryn House, Twickenham, who planned an Economic Museum, 
illustrative of the materials and processes of every-day life. The Food 
Collection was first arranged in 1857, when it became part of the 
General Museum of the Science and Art Department. For some 
time it was under the direction of the Rt. Hon. Lyon Playfair, C.B., M.P., 
who has himself done much good service through his studies of the 
relations between Food and Work. The late Dr. Lankester was 
subsequently entrusted with the management of the collection. It has 
been recently re-arranged, enlarged, and re-described by the author of 
the present volume. 

Nature of the The Food Collection contains two distinct classes of 
Food collection. S p ec i mens< One of these comprises all the usual and 
important articles of human food, whether derived from animals or 
plants. The other class of specimens illustrates, by what may be 
termed displayed analyses, the chemical composition of many indi- 
vidual food-materials, such as breadstuffs, pulse, milk, eggs, and 
butchers' meat. Moreover, in this part of the collection the uses of 
food are shown in relation to the nutrition and work of the human 
body. An attempt has been made to let the Food Collection tell its 
own story. For while each important specimen and illustration is 
labelled in the usual way, longer and fuller descriptions, in conspicuous 



vi PREFACE. 

type, accompany each group of related specimens. Statistics as to 
the production, imports, and consumption of foods are also exhibited, 
together with numerous drawings and diagrams. Besides these aids 
to a thorough grasp of the subject, a set of tables has been prepared, 
showing at a glance the positions, in the kingdoms of Organic Nature, 
of the chief animals and plants used as food. 

pian of the The arrangement adopted in the present volume 
Book. corresponds with that of the Food Collection ; it is based 

on the chemical composition and physiological functions of food* 
Both collection and book are confessedly imperfect : in each there 
are deficiencies to be supplied, redundancies to be removed. The 
collection of necessity continually grows, but the regulation of its 
growth is difficult. Not only are the defects of the collection reflected 
in the present Guide, but there are some sections of the subject where 
our exact knowledge fails. We may note in illustration of this point 
the imperfection of our published chemical analyses of butchers' meat, 
fish, and poultry. Such deficiencies will be slowly made good, but 
the work involved is difficult and tedious. It should be stated in this 
place that the Guide to the Animal Products Collection will afford to 
the reader of the present volume the zoological details concerning 
the most important animals used as food. In the case of vegetable 
products the following pages give a certain amount of botanical in- 
formation ; here the nomenclature adopted in Professor Oliver's Guide 
to the Kew Museums has been almost invariably followed. 

Authorities con- In the present volume there have been incorporated 
ofinformation! UrCeS some parts of the "Guide to the Food Collection" com- 
piled by Dr. Lankester, in 1863. Advantage has also been taken of 
such portions of the former " Inventory of the Food Collection " as 
had been revised by Professors Huxley and Frankland. The well- 
known works and papers of Liebig, Fresenius, Payen, Gorup-Besanez, 
Beaunis, Moleschott, Dupre, Bouchardat and Ouevenne, Lawes and 
Gilbert, Frankland, Playfair, Pavy, E. Smith, Lankester, Hassall, 
Johnston, and many other writers on Food, Dietetics, and the 
Chemistry of Plants and Animals have been consulted, but the 
responsibility of a large proportion of the numerical results given in 
the present volume rests with the author, inasmuch as they have been 
derived from or checked by hundreds of new analyses performed in 
his laboratory. 



FOOD. 



PART I.-OF FOOD IN GENERAL. 



§ i.— The Uses of Food. 

In order to show clearly what is the nature of the food of man, 
and what the work which it has to perform in the body, we may 
make use of a comparison which will be familiar enough to our 
readers. Let us compare the complex, living machine of the 
human body with a locomotive engine. In the case of the 
engine, we have, first, its material structure ; secondly, the fuel 
in the form of coke or coal with which it is constantly supplied; 
thirdly, the air which enables the coke to burn ■ fourthly, water; 
and fifthly, waste, in the shape of ashes, cinders, and gases' 
In the case of the human body we likewise have, first, a 
material structure ; secondly, fuel, in the form of our daily 
rations of food ; thirdly, air, which enters into the lungs, and 
serves to consume the food; fourthly, water; and fifthly, the 
waste-products, which are thrown out of the body by different 
channels. In both cases the fuel is burnt by the aid of air, 
the oxygen of which unites with the combustible part of the 
fuel, and in so doing the power of doing work or potential 
energy in the materials which combine is set free as heat 
and motion. In the steam-engine this heat is chiefly used to 
change water into steam, and then, by the expansion which 



B 



2 THE USES OF FOOD. 

accompanies this change, motion is produced- In the human 
body, the heating of water and its conversion into steam or 
vapour is a quite subordinate part of the work done by the heat 
given out during the burning of substances contained in or made 
from the food taken, What happens in the body is briefly this. 
The greater part of the carbon and hydrogen in the dry matter of 
food, after undergoing certain changes, becomes quietly and 
steadily burnt in the body into carbonic acid gas and water. This 
combustion may go on in all parts of the body whither oxygen 
has been carried from the lungs by the blood, but it occurs chiefly 
in the muscles. The force or energy laid up in the compounds 
thus burnt is given out partly as heat, which keeps the tem- 
perature of the body up to blood heat (98°*4 Fah.), and partly 
in other forms, as that of mechanical motion. All the internal 
and external work of the body is thus done by the stored-up 
force or energy of the food which is burnt or oxidized therein. 
This food, by digestion and assimilation, becomes indeed first 
of all a part of the body, and then, but not till then, to any 
extent, does it burn and give rise to heat and motion. There 
are, therefore, many differences between combustion as it goes 
on in a locomotive and combustion as it goes on in the body. 
In both structures carbon and hydrogen are burnt by oxygen, 
but in the body the oxidation is slow, and takes place in the 
very midst of water and wet matters. In the body, too, its parts 
are themselves, to some extent, consumed by this oxidation, and 
so the food has the new and additional office to perform of con- 
tinually rebuilding the very machinery which it keeps warm and 
in motion. We have said that there are waste matters thrown 
out by the locomotive and by the human body. These, too, are 
not all the same, though they are alike in the animate and the 
inanimate machine. In the engine the fuel gives rise, by union 
with oxygen, to carbonic acid gas and water-vapour, which 
escape into the air ■ and at the same time those small* portions 
of the fuel which escape oxidation and those which are incapable 



COMPOSITION OF THE HUMAN BODY. 3 

of being oxidized, together form ashes and cinders. In the 
human body carbonic acid gas and water-vapour are likewise 
produced, and then got rid of in the air which we breathe out 
and in the exhalations from the skin ; but a good deal of the 
carbon and of the hydrogen of our food remains in the various 
substances excreted by the bowels and the kidneys. In other 
words, the burning or oxidation of food is not so thorough as 
the burning which we have assumed to take place in the locomo- 
tive engine. But we need not further contrast and compare the 
actions which go on in the two cases, for we have said enough 
to give some notion about the work which food has to do in the 
body, and to illustrate, or rather to indicate, the way in which it 
is done. 

§ 2. — Composition of the Human Body. 

We may now consider the composition of the human body. 
Everyone will allow that the body contains different kinds of 
materials — that it is built up of skin, and flesh, and bone, and 
blood, and other sorts of substances. But when we look a little 
more closely into these things, we soon learn that under the 
name of bone, for example, we have a complex, and not a simple 
material — it is complex as to the way in which it is constructed, 
and complex as to the chemical composition of its constituent 
parts. Here we attend to the latter point chiefly, and taking 
into account all the different solids and liquids which make up 
the mass of the body, we find that these consist of a large 
number of substances which are chemical compounds. The 
compounds contain sometimes two, but oftener three or four, 
elements, united together by chemical attraction in definite pro- 
portions. These compounds are very numerous, something like 
twenty of them having been discovered in the brain alone ; but 
we intend here to name only those which are best known or 
most abundant. 

B 2 



4 COMPOSITION OF THE HUMAN BODY, 

As yet no complete chemical examination of the total con- 
stituents of a healthy human body has been made ; we cannot, 
therefore, state the amounts of the several ingredients which it 
contains, with exactness, but the figures which follow will afford 
some notions on this interesting subject. In making our cal- 

See Case i. culations, we assume that we are analysing (that 
is, chemically pulling to pieces) a man in perfect health, 25 to 
30 years of age, 5 feet 8 inches in height, and weighing n stone, 
or 154 pounds. Throwing out of our list the minuter and less 
certain details, we find that 

The human body is made up of the following compounds : 



lb. oz. gr. 

1. Water : which is found in every tissue and secretion, and 

amounts altogether to- - - - - 109 o o 

2. Fibrin, and similar substances, forming the chief solid 

material of muscular flesh, and also occurring 

in blood 15 10 o 

3. Phosphate of Lime : in all tissues and liquids, but 

chiefly in the bones and teeth - - - 8 12 o 

4. Fat : a mixture of three chemical compounds ; dis- 

tributed throughout the body ... 480 

5. Ossein : the organic framework of bones, and the chief 

constituent of connective tissue ; it yields 

gelatin when boiled - 4 7 35° 

6. Keratin, with other similar nitrogenous compounds, 

forms the chief part of the skin, epidermis, 

hair, and nails, and weighs about - 420 

7. CARTILAGIN : a nitrogenous substance, is the chief con- 

stituent of cartilages ; it resembles the ossein 

of bone, and amounts to---- 180 

8. Hemoglobin, a very important nitrogenous substance 

containing iron ; it gives the red colour to 

the blood, and amounts to- - - - 180 

9. Albumen, a soluble nitrogenous substance, is found in 

chyle, lymph, blood, and muscles - - I I o 

10. Carbonate of Lime is found chiefly in bone - 10 350 

11. Kephalin, with myelin, cerebrin, and several other 

nitrogenised, sulphurised, or phosphorised , 

compounds, is found in brain, nerves, &c. - o 13 o 

12. Fluoride of Calcium is found chiefly in bones and 

teeth • - - o 7 175 



ELEMENTS IN THE HUMAN BODY. 5 

lb. oz. gr. 

13. Phosphate of Magnesia, chiefly in bones and teeth 070 

14. Chloride of Sodium, or common salt, occurs through- 

out the body -■ 070 

15. Cholesterin, Inosite, and Glycogen are compounds 

containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, 

found in brain, muscle, and liver - 030 

16. Sulphate, Phosphate, and Organic Salts of 

Sodium are found in all liquids and tissues - 02 107 

17. Sulphate, Phosphate, and Chloride of Potassium 

are found in all tissues and liquids - O I 300 

18. Silica occurs in hair, skin, and bone - 30 



154 



In giving the foregoing list we do not pretend to do more 
than approximately represent the quantities of the several com- 
pounds present in the body ; indeed, these quantities are for ever 
changing. Nor does this catalogue include every kind of mate- 
rial necessary to the human organism, or found in it at any given 
time. There will be present food in different stages of digestion ; 
carbonic acid gas with free oxygen; and a great number of com- 
plex organic compounds, each occurring, it may be, in very small 
quantity, but still not on that account without importance. All 
these matters are either omitted from our list, or else must be 
considered as included under the names given to better known 
or more abundant compounds. 

Specimens of Now that we have seen of what materials, or 

compounds which proximate principles, as they are often called, the 

are constituents ,,.,.. . 

of the Human human body is built, we must pass on to inquire 

Body are shown 

in Case 2. into the nature of these materials themselves. 

They are compounds, that is, are made up of two or more 
separate and distinct sorts of matter — that is of two or more 
elements. Water, for example, is a compound of two elements 
— hydrogen and oxygen; fibrin contains, besides these two 
elements, three others, namely, carbon, nitrogen, and sulphur; 
yet no one of the compounds contains all the sixteen elements 



6 ELEMENTS OF THE HUMAN BODY, 

necessary to the body as a whole— indeed, no single compound 
present has in it more than six of these. Before trying to find 
out how much of each element is present in the body, let us see 
in what compounds the several elements occur. 



Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen. 

Fibrin, Albumen, Ossein, Keratin, Carttlagin, contain carbon, 

hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur. 
Haemoglobin, all the above elements with iron as well. 
Kephalin and Myelin contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and 

oxygen. 
Cerebrin and Kreatin contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. 
Fat, Cholesterin, Inosite, and Glycogen, contain carbon, hydrogen, 

and oxygen. 
Phosphate of Lime contains calcium, phosphorus, and oxygen. 
Carbonate of Lime contains calcium, carbon, and oxygen. 
Fluoride of Calcium contains calcium and fluorine. 
Phosphate of Magnesia contains magnesium, phosphorus, and oxygen. 
Chloride of Sodium contains sodiupi and chlorine. 
Sulphates contain different metals with sulphur and oxygen. 
Silica ^s a compound of silicon and oxygen. 



The following is a list of. all the elements that are invariably 
found in the human body. It will be seen that there are sixteen 
of them in all, seven of these being metals, and the remainder 
(which we place first) non-metallic : 

Case i. Elements of the Human Body. 

v lb. oz. gr. 

1. Oxygen : a permanent gas, the great supporter of com- 

bustion. This gas constitutes fths of the 
weight of water and -g-th of the air. The quan- 
tity in the human body would fill a space of 
some 1,290 cubic feet, and would weigh 

about - - 109 2 335 

2. Carbon : a solid, occurs nearly pure in charcoal. The 

carbon in the body is variously combined 
with other elements, and by its burning sets 
free heat, and produces carbonic acid gas - 18 11 150 



ELEMENTS OE THE HUMAN BODY. 7 

lb. oz. gr. 

3. Hydrogen : a gas and the lightest substance known. 

It occurs mainly in water ; the quantity in 
the human body would fill a space of some 
2,690 cubic feet, and would weigh about - 14 3 150 

4. Nitrogen : a gas without energetic properties. It is 

an essential part of all bone, and blood, and 
muscle. The quantity in the body would 
occupy about 66 cubic feet, and would weigh 
about 4140 

5. Phosphorus : a solid. It occurs specially in various 

compounds of the bones and of the brain. 
It burns so readily in air, that it is here kept 
under water. In the human body we find 
about 1 12 25 

6. Sulphur : a yellow combustible solid, often called brim- 

stone. Like all the preceding elements, it is 
found in all the tissues and secretions of 
the body, but always in combination. It 
amounts to 080 

7. Chlorine : a greenish-yellow gas, found in the body 

chiefly in union with sodium, the compound 
being common salt. The chlorine in the 
human body would, if free, fill a space of I 
cubic foot and 772 cubic inches, and would 
weigh ------- 04 150 

8. Fluorine : hardly known in the separate state, but 

probably a gas. It is found united with 
calcium in the bones and teeth. The quantity 
in the body would probably fill a space of 2 
cubic feet and 510 cubic inches. It would 
weigh 03 300 

9. Silicon : a solid, occurring in union with oxygen, in hair, 

bones, blood, bile, saliva, and skin - - o 14 

10. Calcium : a metal, the basis of lime. It occurs chiefly 

in bones and teeth 313 19° 

11. Potassium : a metal, the basis of potash. It is lighter 

than water, and when placed on it burns with 
a lilac flame. It occurs mainly as phosphate 
and chloride O 3 340 

12. Sodium : a metal, the basis of soda. Itis lighter than 

water, and must be kept from the air. It 
occurs chiefly in union with chlorine as com- 
monvsalt, but also in other compounds in bile O 3 217 

13. Magnesium : this metal is found, in union with phos- 

phoric acid, mainly in bones - - - o 2 250 



8 NATURE OF FOOD. 

lb. oz. gr. 

14. Iron : this metal is essential to the colouring matter of 

the blood. It occurs everywhere in the body o o 65 

15. Manganese : a metal much like iron. Faint traces occur 

in the brain, and decided traces in the blood. 

16. Copper : traces of this metal are invariably found in the 

human brain, and probably also in the blood. 

Lithium and lead have been frequently found, but not in 
quantities that could be weighed, in both muscles and blood. 
It is not certain, however, that these elements are absolutely 
essential parts of the human body. 

We have now seen of what compounds and elements the 
human body is made up, and, therefore, we may now inquire 
what must be the quantity and character of the food which has 
to furnish these compounds. But our inquiry must also include 
another point — namely, the materials with which the machinery 
of the human body is kept in action. In short, we must study 
food not only as a constructive and reparative material, but as 
fuel — as the source of heat and force. 

The materials of the human body, that is, the compounds 
of elements of which it is constructed, are, in most instances, 
either identical with, or similar to those compounds which are 
contained in food. Naturally we should expect this to be the 
case with animal food, but it is also true to a great degree in 
the case of vegetable products. And here it must be recollected 
that, with rare exceptions, compounds, and compounds only, 
not the separate elements, are capable of nourishing the body. 
Oxygen, indeed, is used in the free or uncombined state as an 
element, but the office performed by oxygen, as we have before 
explained, is quite different from that of the materials usually 
called food. 

It will be convenient to introduce here a classified list of 
the several compounds which occur in the vegetable and animal 
products used as food. A classification which takes into account 
both the chemical composition of these • compounds and the 
purposes which they serve in the body will be adopted. 



COMPOUNDS IN FOOD. 



§ 3. — Chemical and Physiological Classification of Food. 



Class I. — Nutrients. 

Division 1. — Incombustible Compounds. 

Group i. Water — The carrier of nutritive materials and waste products : 

forms an essential part of all tissues. 
Group ii. Salts or Mineral Matter — such as common salt and phosphate 

of lime, which serve to effect changes and build up certain tissues. 

Division 2. — Combustible Compounds. 

Group iii. Carbon Compounds, such as starch, sugar, and fat, which serve 
to keep up the heat and movements of the body by the discharge 
of their potential energy during oxidation in the organism. The 
fat of the body is formed in part from fat or oil in the food. The 
members of this group are often called in the following pages 
"heat-givers," a term which is equivalent to "force -producers." 

Appendix to Group iii. Gum, mucilage, pectose, and cellulose, approach starch 
in chemical composition, and probably serve, in some measure, the 
same end. 

Group iv. Nitrogen Compounds, such as fibrin, albumen, and casein, the 
chief formative and reparative compounds of food : they also may 
yield fat, and by their oxidation set free heat and motion. Here- 
after we shall name them "flesh-formers," except where we set 
them down as albumen, &c, or as albuminoids. 

Appendix to Group iv. The ossein of bones and, gelatin; cartilage and chondrin; 
keratin and elasiin from skin and connective tissue, — approach the 
albuminoids in composition, and may serve, in a measure, similar 
purposes in the body. 



Class II.— Food Adjuncts. 

Group i. Alcohol, as contained in beers, wines, and spirits. 

Group ii. Volatile or Essential Oils, and other odorous and aromatic 

compounds, as contained in condiments, like mustard and pepper, 

and in spices, as ginger and cloves. 
Group iii. Acids, as citric acid in lemons, malic in apples, tartaric in grapes, 

oxalic in rhubarb, and acetic in vinegar and pickles. 
Group iv. Alkaloids, as caffeine in coffee and tea, theobromine in cocoa, and 

nicotine in tobacco. 



IO 



WATER. 



Specimens of 
the compounds 
found in Foods 
are shown in 
Cases 2 and 3. 



We may now proceed to give a brief account 
of each Nutrient, following the order in which 
these compounds are classified in the preceding 



Table; the Food Adjuncts will be considered further on. 



§ 4. — Water. 

Cases 4 , s, and 6. This important constituent of food is the 
carrier of food into and through the system, and forms more 
than two-thirds of the whole body. Water is contained not 
only in the liquids drunk as beverages, but in all kinds of 
solid foods. Here is a list of the 



Quantities of Water in ioo lb. of Different Kinds of Food. 



Fresh oatmeal 
Maize meal 
Wheat en flour 
Barley meal 
Peas - 

Haricot beans 
Rice - 
Eread 
Potatoes - 



Vegetable Food. 
lb. 



5 

14 
14 
14 

14 

14 
15 

40 

75 



Grapes - - - - - 80 

Parsnips - - - - - 81 

Beetroot - - - - - 82 

Apples 83 

Carrots 89 

Cabbages 89 

Onions 91 

Lettuce - - - - 96 



Eutter 
Bacon 
Cheese 
^Eggs 



Animal Food. 

lb. 

- 10 

- 22 

- 34 

- 72 



Lean of meat 
Fowl 
Fish - 
Milk - 



lb. 
73 
73 

74 
86 



Although the above proportions of water seem generally large, 
these foods do not suffice alone to supply all the water required 
by man. As every pound of perfectly dry food should be accom- 
panied by four pounds of water, it is found necessary to consume 
-water itself, or some beverage containing little else but water. 



TESTING WATERS. n 



Drinking Water. 



Water for drinking must fulfil certain conditions. It must 

have no smell, even when warmed, but its taste must be pleasant 

and fresh. Seen in bulk it must not be cloudy 

be seen a t?e coiS or yellowish, but of a pale blue or bluish-green 

and P of various colour. Drinking water must always contain air 

London waters. _.,,.. _. . . _ . 

dissolved in it. JLnis air consists of three gases — 
nitrogen, oxygen, and carbonic acid gas. Boiled water, having 
lost its gases, is insipid and flat ioo cubic inches of water 
should have from 2 to 5 cubic inches of gas in solution. Water 
should likewise contain certain mineral matters dissolved in it 
Of these the chief is carbonate of lime, but there are also 
sulphates, chlorides, and nitrates of sodium, magnesium, &c, 
present. But these dissolved mineral matters need not exceed a 
few grains, and should not amount to as much as 30 grains in the 
imperial gallon of water, which weighs 10 lb., or 70,000 grains. 
It is usual to call all the different matters left behind when a water 
is boiled down to dryness, impurities, and in a chemical sense this 
is correct. And it may further be stated that the larger the residue 
left by a water on its being evaporated, the less suitable that 
water will prove for most of the usual purposes to which water is 
put. It will be "harder" than waters leaving less residue, and 
so will consume more soap in washing without producing a lather ; 
it will leave more fur, or deposit, in kettles or boilers, and thus 
cause the waste of more fuel ; and it will extract the goodness of 
tea, coffee, &c, less thoroughly. By evaporating a pint of any 
particular water carefully down in a glass dish we see what 
inCase 5 seve- residue it leaves, and can compare it with the 

ral water residues . , , . . . .. 

are shown. residues left by other waters. But this residue 

may be made to teach us more about the water. Boil down a 
pint, or better, a quart, of the water in a porcelain dish, and then 



12 WATER. 

heat the dry residue gradually hotter and hotter. If the original 
residue is white and powdery in appearance, that is, so far, a 
good sign; but if it is partly white and partly yellowish or 
greenish, and especially if there are gum-like stains round the 
residue, then on heating these parts of the residue we shall 
probably see them darken, fuse, and burn away in part, giving 
Such strongly- out fumes having a disagreeable smell. If the 
oi good and bad blackening is considerable, much organic matter 

waters are shown . . . .... , 

in Case 5 . is present ; but if the smell is offensive (like burnt 

feathers), then it is certain that the organic matter is of animal 
origin, and is, therefore, more likely to be unwholesome, or even 
poisonous. 

Another test for organic ' matter in water may be used with 
some facility. If a water contains substances derived from the 
decay of animal or vegetable matters, such as those in sewage 
and manure, and the refuse of plants, then it is found that such 
a water will destroy the beautiful purple colour of a chemical 
substance called permanganate of potash. The reason for this 
is as follows : The decaying organic matters of the water attract 
oxygen strongly when it is presented in certain states or forms. 
Now, a solution of the above permanganate contains much 
oxygen just in the right state to be so attracted and removed. 
By its removal from the permanganate the composition of that 
substance is altered, and its colour destroyed. The more organic 
matter in the water, the more permanganate will be decolourized. 
The test may be thus applied. Fill a clean white teacup with 
the water to be tested. Add about 60 drops, or a drachm, of 
weak sulphuric acid ; stir with a clean slip of window glass ; 
now pour in enough of a weak solution of permanganate of 
potash to render the water a rich rose colour. Cover the cup with 
a clean glass plate. Now, if there be much organic 

For specimens or 7 o 

of this test and ma tter in the water, the colour will go in a few 

waters tested, ' . & 

see Case 5. minutes, and more permanganate may be added, 

and still lose its colour. It must be recollected in using this test 



SALT IN WATER. 13 

that peaty matters and iron salts, which are not necessarily 
unwholesome, give the same result* 

Another mode of testing drinking waters is the following : 
Nearly fill a clean tumbler with the water, and 

For specimens J 

of this test and ^n %&& 20 drops of nitric acid, and 5 of a 

waters tested, x 

see Case 5. solution of nitrate of silver (lunar caustic), or else 

a. small crystal of that substance. Stir with a clean slip of glass, 
and if there is more than a slight bluish-white cloudiness, if 
there is a solid curdy substance found, then there is too much 
common salt in the water. It may be said, What harm is there 
in common salt? We answer, none in the common salt as 
such, but only in the common salt as evidence of some kinds of 
pollution. We will explain. Common salt (chloride of sodium) 
does not occur in rain-water, or pure well-water, except to the 
extent of a little over a grain per gallon. Of course there is 
more in waters from salt-bearing rocks, and in waters near the 
sea. But generally, at all events in a chalk or limestone district, 
where common salt is found in any quantity exceeding i^ grain 
per gallon, which gives a mere cloudiness with nitrate of silver, 
the salt is derived from sewage ; in other words, from the salt 
consumed in human food, and voided chiefly with the urine. If 
a water be found to contain both organic matter and common 
salt, it is probably contaminated by house or town sewage. If 
organic matter be abundant, but accompanied by a smaller quan- 
tity of common salt, then the source of pollution is rather the 
excrement of farm animals than of man — or it may arise merely 
from vegetable refuse. 

Phosphates, shown by the molybdic acid test, are another 
sign of animal pollution in a water. 

Before considering the other impurities of water, it will be 
better if we briefly state the several sources of drinking water. 

* Rain and pure waters contain very little ammonia, sewage and many 
bad waters much. "Nessler's" test strikes a yellow or brown colour when 
ammonia occurs in sufficient amount. 



i 4 SOURCES OF DRINKING WATER. 

Water Supply. 

Water for drinking purposes is derived from five sources : — 
i. Rain-water ; 2. Rivers ; 3. Surface-water, and Shallow wells ; 
4. Deep wells ; 5. Springs. 

1. Rain-water always contains some impurities, both sus- 
pended and dissolved. As it falls through the air it acquires a 
little ammonia, as well as nitrous and nitric acids ; it dissolves 
nitrogen, oxygen, and carbonic acid gas; and if there be any 
sulphurous acid gas, or hydrochloric acid, or compounds of arsenic, 
&c, present in the air — as in and near large towns and manufac- 
turing districts, it will carry these down with it. But it will also 
remove from the air much ' of the suspended matter which is 
always floating therein — the dust which is seen to be so abundant 
in air when a beam of sunlight falls across an otherwise darkened 
room. Thus it is that rain-water, or ever it touches a roof or 
the land, contains of solid impurities, organic and inorganic, 
nearly 2 grains in the gallon. This is the average result in the 
country, but the rain-water of London and large towns is far 
more loaded with impurities. 

Here it will be as well to state that the amount of rain 
falling in the London district averages less than 25 inches in 
the year : it is less than this on the eastern coasts of England, 
and gradually increases towards the west till there are found some 
excessively rainy places, as in North Wales, Cumberland, and the 
north-west of Scotland, where the annual rainfall is greater than 
75 inches. Let us consider what one inch of rain really means. 
If an acre of land were covered with water to the depth of only 
the tenth part of an inch, that layer of water would weigh more 
than 10 tons : thus 1 inch of rain is ten times that amount — in 
fact, very nearly 101 tons. A rainfall during the year of 25 
inches corresponds, then, to 2,525 tons of water per acre. 

If we collect rain-water as it falls in the country, we may easily 
render it impure in many ways. If it falls on a slate roof it 



SURFACE AND SHALLOW WELLS. 



i5 



suffers little change ; if on one of tiles, it will take up scarcely 
anything save a little decaying vegetable matter from the mosses 
and lichens usually found on such a surface ; but if it falls on a 
limestone roof it dissolves calcareous as well as decaying organic 
matters. Further, rain-water acts on leaden pipes and cisterns, 
becoming charged with this injurious metal. 

2. River-water. — Directly rain-water comes into contact with 
the land it acquires fresh impurities. Even rain-water stored 
in tanks or cisterns may become decidedly unwholesome ; but 
when, as in most parts of England, rain falls upon pasture land, 
arable land, or inhabited places, then its character is altogether 
altered for the worse. From the bones and other manures applied 
to farm lands, from vegetable and animal refuse, particularly the 
sewage-matter from human habitations, rain-water takes up, not 
only mineral matters, but decaying organic matters. If the water 
thus polluted does not have to pass through thick layers of 
chalk, or limestone or sandstone rock, but runs off the surface 
or through drain-pipes, it is charged with injurious matters. It 
often passes directly into rivers, which generally receive also the 
direct inflow of sewers, the foul discharges of factories, and the 
droppings of the farm animals which are pastured on the banks. 
Thus the use of river-water for drinking and cooking is not to be 
recommended. It is fraught with risk to health. 

3. Surface-well water resembles river-water, but is likely to 
be still more loaded with dangerous impurities. For in a river 
the decaying animal and vegetable matters present become, in 
part at least, oxidized and rendered harmless by the dissolved 
oxygen of the water, aided by the suspended earthy or mineral 
matters. It will not, indeed, be safe to trust to such natural 
purification, for it is only partial at the best, and may wholly fail 
to remove the most deadly of the organic matters, the special 
poisons, for instance, of typhoid fever and cholera. With greater 
force the same statement may be made in regard to surface-wells. 
These merely receive surface soakage from the immediate locality : 



16 DEEP-WELL WATERS. 

they are often near privies and pigsties, and not infrequently they 
are in communication with a neighbouring sewer or cesspool. 
Many years ago the writer of these pages discovered, by means of 
spectrum analysis, that if a salt of the metal lithium was put into 
certain privies, cesspools, and leaky sewers, it could be soon 
detected in the water of neighbouring shallow wells in which it 
was not naturally present. In fact, wherever a clay or other 
water-bearing material keeps up the water, and there is a loose 
soil or gravel above, it is pretty nearly certain that the shallow 
wells dug in the earth will be in communication with the neigh- 
bouring cesspools. Often the level of the liquid in both will be 
the same. True, the sewage-water will not pour in unfiltered and 
turbid, but it will pour in for all that, and mingle with the natural 
water of the well. We cannot depend upon the purifying effect 
of the few feet of gravel or sand that may separate the well from 
the cesspool. To the eye, and even to the taste, there may be 
no signs of the disgusting and dangerous pollution, but the 
pollution may be there, nevertheless. Sometimes these waters 
may be taken — it may be for years — without bad results, but an 
epidemic may come, and then these waters may spread, and often 
have spread, death around. The poisons producing cholera and 
typhoid fever are contained in the discharges from the bowels of 
persons suffering from these diseases, and a small quantity of such 
discharges finding its way into water used for drinking, has been 
clearly proved to have been the cause of a frightful mortality 
amongst persons using these waters. There is scarcely a single 
shallow well in London which can be pronounced safe. 

4. Deep-well waters are generally palatable as well as free 
from injurious substances. The organic matters which the rain- 
water has carried down with it into the rocky layers below the 
surface, have been so altered by their passage through great thick- 
nesses of stone, that they have • become oxidized, or in common 
language burnt. It may seem strange to talk of burning taking 
place in water ; but the process of oxidation, whether slow or fast, 



HARDNESS OF WATER. 



17 



whether it occurs when a candle burns in air, or food in the body, 
or animal and vegetable matter in water, is essentially the same 
process. The new products formed are harmless, indeed they 
may be even useful, but the oxidation must be complete. The pro- 
cess is not completed in shallow-well waters ; it generally is in 
deep-well waters. The final and harmless products are there. 
The nitrogen of the animal matters appears at last in the form of 
nitrates and nitrites ; the carbon, as carbonic acid gas ; and the 
hydrogen, as water. The nitrates and nitrites may be regarded as 
a sign of previous pollution, but they are quite harmless, and must 
occur in all the deep-well waters of a country like England, where 
so much of the land which receives the rainfall is under cultivation, 
and consequently manured. Most farm lands in England receive 
yearly in farm-yard manure alone, nearly 30 pounds of nitrogen 
per acre, and this must find its way into rivers, wells, and springs. 
Deep-well waters are usually harder than any of the waters before 
considered, for they will have dissolved out much calcareous, 
magnesian, and alkaline salt during their long course underground. 
They will probably, on the average, contain about 30 grains per 
gallon of total dissolved substances. 

5. Spring waters are generally palatable and wholesome. 
They vary in hardness and as to total solid matters dissolved,- 
according to the more or less insoluble nature of the rocks 
through which they have passed or which throw them out. The 
Rabate Fountain at Balmoral contains less than 1 grain per gallon 
of dissolved matter, while the average of the springs of the Lias 
shows 2$y 2 grains. 

Hardness of Water. 

This may, perhaps, be the best place to introduce a few 
words about that quality of water which is usually called hard- 
ness, and to which we have before frequently alluded. In ordi- 
nary waters the chief hardening ingredients are salts of lime and 
magnesia. These decompose soaps, forming white, curdy, and 



18 HARDNESS OF WATER. 

insoluble compounds — lime and magnesia soaps, in fact, which 
contain fatty acids united with these earthy bases. The alkali in 
the original soap unites with the carbonic or sulphuric constituent 
of the lime and magnesia salts, forming carbonate of soda, which 
has cleansing properties, or sulphate of soda, which is quite 
useless. If then a water be hard from earthy carbonates, how- 
ever disagreeable washing with it becomes, still the soap, though 
it will not lather, cleanses. But if earthy sulphates predomi- 
nate, then neither lathering nor cleansing can take place until 
the soap has destroyed these salts. In using a hard water 
for washing the hands, we instinctively use but little water, 
rubbing the soap between the hands wetted with water but not 
immersed in it. But in soft water we find that a very little soap 
will cause the whole of the water to lather. It is not ascertained 
that hard waters are unwholesome because of their hardness, 
though much mineral matter dissolved in a water is objectionable. 
But for washing linen and for baths hard waters are objectionable, 
because of the white, useless, curdy matter which is formed with 
soap, and which wastes much soap, and may, if not removed 
Case 4 con- by rinsing and rubbing, stick to the skin. The 

tains illustrations J ° ° 7 

stroked S b ap dif" amount of soap destroyed or curdled by 100,000 lb. 
Ss^oT^hJ'dS (lOjQoo gallons) of various waters is seen in this 

solved matters , to i.i a 
they contain. laDie. 

Waters. Soap destroyed, lb. 

Thames ------- 212 

Lea - - - - - - - 204. 

Kent Company's 265 

Caterham 84 

Worthing - -,.-.- - - 285 

Leicester - 161 

Manchester ------- 32 

Preston ...... 80 

Glasgow- (Loch Katrine) -, - - 4 

Lancaster - - - - - I 4 

The hardness of water may be tested by a standard solution 
of soap, known as Clark's Soap Test. 



IMPURITIES OF WATER. ig 

Organic Pollution of Water. 

The organic impurities of water are even more important than 
the mineral impurities. Organic impurities, such as sewage con- 
tains, and to which reference has been already made more than 
once, should never be allowed to enter into a water used for 
drinking purposes. If they have entered, we can prove their 
actual presence by the amount of carbon and nitrogen in organic 
combination which the polluted water contains ; while we can 
trace their previous entrance by the nitrates and nitrites which 
they yield. If we assume that average London sewage contains 
7 grains of combined nitrogen per gallon (or 10 parts in 100,000), 
then if we find 3^ grains in a gallon of water, it maybe considered 
that the particular sample of water examined had received animal 
pollution equal to just half its bulk of sewage. This pollution 
may not have arisen from actual house sewage, but from animal 
matters in decay, farmyard manure, guano, &c. Nor can we say 
that water which has been thus polluted is necessarily now un- 
wholesome. Such changes may have occurred to the offensive 
and unwholesome nitrogenous decaying matters as to have turned 
them into harmless mineral compounds — mere signs of previous 
contamination. The preceding remarks will, it is hoped, render 
clear the meaning of the expressions and numbers used in the 
monthly reports concerning the metropolitan water supply which 
are published by the Registrar-General. 

So far, little has been said about the visible suspended matters 
found in many water supplies, attention having been drawn chiefly 
to the invisible dissolved impurities. In settling-tanks, and by 
passing through filter-beds, the muddy water of the Thames and 
Lea may be rendered bright and clear. For if the impurities of 
water were suspended in it, but not dissolved, thorough filtration 
would remove them. But, unfortunately, perfectly clear or bright 
waters may be as unwholesome, or more so, than muddy ones. 
Yet filtration does effect some change for the better even in the 

c 2 



20 FILTERS. 

worst waters, provided that the water filters slowly, and that the 
material of the filter is of the right sort and not rendered inert by- 
previous use. An old filter, in which the charcoal, &c, has not 
been properly renewed, may give impurities to a water instead of 
removing them.* 

The best materials for filters are these three : — 

i. Gravel and sand, if sharp and clean. 

2. Charcoal, especially burnt bone. 

3. Spongy metallic iron. 

The water supplied to London is filtered by means of gravel 
and sand, which generally cause the removal of 1 grain per 
gallon of dissolved matter and all the suspended particles. 
Animal charcoal, prepared by heating bones to redness in closed 
iron retorts, is very effective, when fresh, in removing much 
organic dissolved matter and mineral salts from water filtered 
through it. But its softening effect is not of long continuance. 
A cheap and simple filter may be made by taking a large 
common flowerpot, thoroughly soaking it in clean water first, and 
then filling it up in the following way : — Plug the hole at the 
bottom with a piece of sponge, not too tightly; put on this a 
layer of animal charcoal, then a layer of clean sand, and on the 
top a layer of coarse clean gravel. Many of the filters now 
manufactured are constructed in a similar way. Wherever 
possible it is best to let the water ascend through the filter. 
This may be done in cisterns and siphon filters. 

As a filtering material, nothing equals spongy iron. This 
was introduced by Mr. G. Bischof, and is most effective in 
reducing the hardness of water (often by two-thirds its original 
amount), and in removing the dissolved organic matter. There 

* Filters of different kinds are shown in the collection. The actual process 
of filtering water through sand, gravel, and charcoal is exhibited, together with 
samples of the materials used in the construction of filters. 



SOFTENING WATER. 21 

is, of course, much risk in trusting to any method of nitration for 
removing deadly or unwholesome matters from drinking waters, 
but if reliance can be placed on any material for this purpose, it 
would probably be on spongy iron. 

There are two metallic impurities which may be found in 
water used for drinking. One of these is iron, which cannot be 
considered injurious to health, though its presence may render 
the water unpleasant to the taste and unsightly. This iron 
arises from the iron mains through which the water is conveyed. 
These ought always to be coated inside and out, when freshly 
cast, with a mixture of pitch and heavy coal or mineral oil. 
The pipes are heated to 500 Fah., and then dipped into the 
hot mixture. The black shining varnish thus produced protects 
the pipes from change and the water from contamination. 

. The other metal occurring in some waters is 

For examples ° 

of the action of i ea d # -phis is derived from leaden pipes and 

water on lead, see * r 

Case 5 - leaden cisterns, but it is scarcely ever found except 

in rain-water and very soft water : in these it may be present in 
dangerous amount. It may be detected by the brown tint 
produced on adding a drop of hydrochloric acid and some 
hydrosulphuric acid water to the suspected water. 

We may now consider the only truly chemical process 
adopted on a large scale for improving the quality of water, for 
filtration is, in the main, a mecha?iical operation. 

There is a plan of softening hard water by the use of lime ; 
it was invented by the late Dr. Clark, of Aberdeen. Waters 
from the chalk, limestone, and oolite may be made to lose 
most of their hardness by this process, just as effectually as by 
boiling. But if a water is not softened by boiling it cannot be 
softened by Clark's process, which is competent to remove the 
carbonates of lime and magnesia, but not the sulphates. Clark's 
For niustra- process may be thus carried out in the case of the 

tions of Clark's 01 . 

process of soften- Last London Company s water. Slake 18 ounces 

ingj waters, see 

Case 5. of freshly-burnt quicklime in a little water ; when 



22 WATER-SUPPLY OF LONDON. 

the lime has fallen to powder, add enough water to make a thin 
cream with this powder, and stir the mixture in a pail. Then 
pour this cream into a cistern containing 50 gallons of the water 
to be softened, rinsing the pail out with more water, but not 
pouring out any lumps of lime that may have settled. Let into 
the cistern the remainder of the 700 gallons of water which 18 
ounces of lime can soften, and take care that a thorough mingling 
of the water and lime occurs. The added lime seizes the carbonic 
acid gas which held the carbonate of lime in solution, and so both 
the original carbonate of lime and that formed in the process fall 
together as a white sediment. This takes some time to settle — 
from 12 to 24 hours — but the water may be used for washing 
before it has become quite clear. This process is carried out on 
a large scale at Canterbury, Tring, and Caterham. At Canterbury 
110,000 gallons are softened daily by the addition of 11,000 gallons 
of lime-water, the total impurities of the water being thus reduced 
from 23^ grains per gallon to less than &}£. And not only are 
hardening matters thus removed, but organic substances as well. 
The process purifies, to some extent, as well as softens ; and the 
method is not only effective, but cheap. It would require 
20^ cwt. of soap, costing ^47 is. &d., or 4^ cwt. of carbonate 
of soda, costing £2 ijs. 6a 7 ., to soften the same quantity of 
water which could be treated by Clark's process for 8a 7 ., the cost 
of 1 cwt. of quicklime. 



London Water. 



London, with its suburbs, may be assumed to contain about 
four millions of inhabitants — or four persons out of every .thousand 
now living on the whole globe. London is supplied with water 
by eight private companies, which provide a daily supply of about 
114 millions of gallons. The following table gives the names of 



SALTS IN FOOD. 



23 



these companies, the sources of the water which they supply, and 
the daily amount : — 

Water Companies. Sources of Supply. ^ofnons^ "* 

East London - - Thames above Sunbury, and Lea 21,000,000 

West Middlesex - - Thames above Hampton - - 9,700,000 

Grand Junction - - Thames near Hampton - - 12,300,000 

South wark and Vauxhall Thames near Hampton - - 17,500,000 

Lambeth ... Thames near Moulsey - - - 12,500,000 

Chelsea - - - - Thames near Moulsey - 10,000,000 

New River ... Lea, and springs, and deep wells - 22,000,000 

Kent .... Deep wells in chalk - 9,000,000 



Some idea of the vastness of the quantity of water supplied to 
London may be obtained by comparing its bulk with that of a 
familiar building. A day's water supply would require a tank 
equal in area to Westminster Hall, but the walls would have to 
be carried up to the height of 1,140 feet, or nearly three times the 
height of the cross on St. Paul's Cathedral. And this quantity of 
water will not suffice for the increasing population as years go by. 
In 1850 the gross daily delivery was 44,500,000 gallons; in 1856 
it had reached 81,000,000 gallons, and now stands at 114,000,000 
gallons. 



§ 5. — Salts, or Mineral Matter, in Food. 

The importance of water as a constituent of food has obliged 
us to dwell upon the subject of water supply at some length. 
Turning again to the classified list of Nutrients on p. 9, we 
find next to water a group of oxidized or incombustible ingre- 
dients, called salts, or mineral matter. These occur, as we have 
seen, in most drinking waters, and are found also in all parts of 
plants and animals used as food ; while one of them, common 
salt, the chloride of sodium, is added purposely to food — indeed 
is the only solid mineral substance so added and consumed. 



24 SALTS IN FOOD. 

The quantity of mineral matter contained in some important 
articles of vegetable and animal food is shown in this table : — 

Mineral Matter in i,ooo lb. of 13 Vegetable Products. 

lb. I lb.. 

Apples 4 I Watercress - - - - 13 



Wheaten flcmr - - - - 7 

Turnips 8 

Potatoes - -. - - 10 

Barley - -■■-•- - 11 

Cabbage ----- 12 

Bread - - - - - 12 



Maize 20 

Oatmeal 21 

Peas 3° 

Cocoa nibs - - - -36 

Wheaten bran - - - - 60 



Mineral Matter in 1,000 lb. of 4 Animal Products. 



lb. 
Cow's milk - - - 7 

Lean of mutton - - - 1 7 



lb. 
Eggs (without shells) - - 18 

Gloucester cheese - - - 5° 



It is not to be supposed that the mineral matter entered in 
these tables is in all cases of the same composition. It varies 
greatly in the different products named. In most seeds and 
fruits there is much phosphate in the mineral matter, and in most 
green vegetables much potash. One important kind of mineral 
matter alone is deficient in vegetable food, and that is common 
salt. This compound must be added in large quantity to the 
food of persons living exclusively on vegetables ; while, on the 
other hand, there is no better way of counteracting the bad effects 
on the human body of a salt-meat diet than the use of lemon- 
juice and fresh green vegetables, which are rich in potash salts. 

The mineral matters found in different sorts of vegetable food 

are not always the same as those which form part of the body, 

their constituents being more or less re-arranged and re-combined 

. , after their consumption as food. A list of the 

.For salt and L 

SaSers i^foodf most important kinds of mineral matter or salts 
see Case 7 . found in or taken with food may be fitly given here. 

1. Common salt, chloride of sodium, appears to be essential 
to the life of the higher animals. Some plants contain little or 
the merest trace of it. Salt is diffused everywhere, and accumu- 



PHOSPHATES IN FOOD. 



25 



lates in the ocean, rain steadily washing it out of soils and rocks, 
and rivers then bringing it to the sea. Salt occurs as rock salt 
and in brine springs, both of which usually contain many other 
saline substances or impurities. By boiling down and crystal- 
lising its solution, salt may be purified and obtained of various 
degrees of fineness — bay salt, kitchen salt, and fine salt. Salt 
should be fine-grained, white and dry, and without bitter 
taste, the latter defect being due to chloride of magnesium. 
Common salt suffers certain changes in the human body, and is 
not merely taken to be excreted. Its chlorine helps to furnish 
the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice, and the chlorine of the 
chloride of potassium found in red blood-corpuscles and in 
muscle. Its sodium forms part of the soda salts which are the 
characteristic constituents of the bile, and of the phosphate of 
soda of the blood. Salt is much used in the preservation of 
animal food; sometimes nitre is added as well."' 
For specimens 2 . Potash salts, such as the phosphate, the car- 

of potash salts, . 

see Case 3. bonate, the chloride, and the nitrate, are either 

contained ready-formed in vegetable and animal foods, or are 
produced from other potassium compounds. Dry seeds, for in- 
stance, usually contain much phosphate of potash, while fleshy 
fruits and the growing parts of plants are rich in potash salts of 
organic acids, such as the oxalate, tartrate, citrate, and malate. 
These are changed by oxidation in the body into carbonate of 
potash, &c. &c. Potash salts in small doses are stimulating ; in 
large doses they prove unmistakably poisonous. Nitrate of potash 
(saltpetre) is present in many plants, as lettuce and watercress. 
3. Phosphate of lime, with small quantities of carbonate of 
For salts of lime and fluoride of calcium, is an essential mineral 

lime and mag- . . 

nesia, see Case 3 . constituent of food. Phosphate of lime is well 
known as bone-earth; it is a white, earthy-looking substance, 
nearly insoluble in water. It is always associated in all three 

* In Case 7 is a small sample of the salt soil which occurs near the city of 
Mexico ; also, salt obtained from this earth by extraction with water and boiling 
down. 



26 HEAT-GIVERS IN FOOD. 

kingdoms of nature with the carbonate, fluoride, or chloride of 
calcium. It is contained in seeds and fruits chiefly, and is 
essential to the bones and teeth, which it hardens and strengthens. 
But phosphate of lime is doubtless concerned in the formation, 
not only of bone, but of most other tissues. Magnesia salts 
resemble and accompany lime salts. 

4. Iro?i occurs in nearly all articles of food, though in very 
minute quantities. The ashes of all plants used for food contain 

For iron salts distinct traces of peroxide of iron. In vegetables it 
see case 3. probably occurs in combination with organic acids. 

Milk has been found to contain i part of iron in 57,000 parts. 

5. Of most of the acid constituents of the mineral nutrients we 
have already spoken ; but the sulphates have not been mentioned. 

For sui hates ^ * s cons idered that a part of the sulphuric con- 
:i5ee Case 3 * stituent of the sulphates of the body is contained 

in the sulphates of drinking waters and vegetable food, but that 
some may be formed from the sulphur of the albuminoid and 
gelatinous matters consumed. 

One of the main functions of mineral nutrients is to aid in 
the transference, absorption, and elaboration of the oxidizable 
nutrients — somewhat after the same manner that a scaffolding aids 
the construction of a building. The same or similar offices are 
performed in plants by the mineral matters they contain. 

§ 6.— Carbon-compounds or Heat-givers. 

The third group of nutrients contains a number of oxidizable 
carbon-compounds, the chief of which are starch, sugar, and fat. 

1. Starch is, perhaps, the most important of the heat-givers 
=or force-producers in human food. It occurs abundantly in the 
cereal grains, especially in rice, Indian corn, and wheat ; about 
15 per cent, may be obtained from potato tubers ; it is also found 
in most leaves and stems, and in many succulent fruits. Starch 
See Drawings occurs in peculiar forms called granules, which are 
nies. often quite characteristic of different plants. Starch 



STARCH. 27 

is a white, glistening powder, insoluble in cold water, but nearly 
completely dissolved by hot water. Its solution, when cold, 
becomes an intense blue when a solution of iodine is added to it. 
Starch forms about &$ per cent, of the whole weight of tapioca, 
from the root of Manihot utilissima and M. aifit, the mandiocca 
or cassava plants, natives of South America, and belonging to the 
Euphorbiaceas, or Spurge order. The roots of the bitter cassava 

For tapioca and (M. utilissima) contain prussic acid as well as 
see Case s. ' starch, the former being separated by washing the 
grated roots, and allowing the starch granules to settle. Another 
well-known starch is that which goes under the name of arrow- 
root. It is obtained chiefly from the the rhizome, or root-stock, of 
Maranta arundinacea, a native of the West Indies, .largely culti- 
vated in Barbadoes, St. Vincent, and Bermuda. Tous-les-mois 
is another starch, obtained from the tubers of Canna edulis. Sago 

For arrowroot is likewise a starch, mainly produced by the sago 
Case 9. * palms (Sagus rumphii and S. Icevis). The trees 

are felled, split, and the starch washed out from the central parts. 
In the Moluccas sago cakes are a common article of food. In 
Ceylon and some parts of the East Indies a coarse sago is made 
from the nuts of Cycas revoluta, &c. The most common starches 
used in England as food are those from the tubers of the potato, 
from wheat, from rice, and from Indian corn, this latter often going 
under the name of corn-flour. Portland sago, or Portland arrow- 
root, is a starch obtained from the tubers of a species of arum ; 
while salep or saloop, once largely consumed, and still used in 

For salep see Turkey and the East as food in Europe, is a starch 
Case 9 ' derived from the tubers of eleven kinds of Orchis, 

such as O. masatla, O. maculata, and O. morio. The salep sold 
in London mostly comes from Smyrna. 

Inulin, from the roots of elecampane {Inula Heleniuni) and 
Jerusalem artichokes (Helianthus tuberosus), has the same com- 
position as starch, and closely resembles it in most of its pro- 
perties. 



28 



STARCH. 



The following table gives the quantities of starch in 
ioolb. of several kinds of vegetable products and prepara- 
tions : — 



lb. 
Sago, tapioca, arrowroot, corn- 
flour, maizena - - - 83 
Pearl barley - - - - 76 

Rice 76 

Fine wheaten flour - - - 74 

Wheat 71 

Rye 71 

Buckwheat, without husks - - 64 

Maize - -. - - - 64 



Scotch oatmeal - - - 63 

Millet, without husks - - 61 

Peas 51 

Haricot beans - - - - 49 

Wheaten bread - - - 48 

Wheaten bran - 44 

Potatoes 15 

Parsnips - - - - - 3 

Vegetable marrow - - - °i 



Some of these numbers include with the starch small quantities 
of dextrin, sugar, and gum — substances which subserve the 
same purposes in the animal system. 

Starch, like all the compounds of the group of nutrients now 
under consideration, contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen only. 
It is never met with in commerce quite pure and free from 
moisture — arrowroot, for instance, containing from 12 to 16 per 
cent, of water, with traces of mineral and nitrogenous matters. 
Neither arrowroot nor any other starch can furnish the materials 
for the building up and repair of flesh or muscle ; it is, how- 
ever, next to oil and fat, the most concentrated, heat-giving, and 
force-producing of all the nutrients. To be digested, starch 
must be dissolved, or at least softened. These changes are 
effected by boiling in water, or baking in the presence of 
moisture. Thus the digestion of starch may be said to com- 
mence in , its preparation by cooking. It s proceeds further 
through the action of the saliva during mastication, a peculiar 
ferment called ptyalin which exists in the saliva being capable of 
changing starch into glucose, a variety of sugar. In the stomach, 
such parts of the starch as have escaped previous change do not 
alter much ; but these are finally transformed into sugar in the 
small intestine ; thence the sugar is absorbed into the blood. 



SUGAR. 



29 



For specimens Dextrin has the same composition as starch, 

cLe de of in P ota?o but it is soluble in cold water. It may be made 
preparations. ^ heating starch to 320 ° Fah., and by acting 

upon it with a small quantity of malt flour, or of nitric or 
sulphuric acid, for a short time. Thus prepared, dextrin often 
goes under the name of British gum. It is at least of equal 
value with starch as a food, and requires less alteration to change 
it into sugar previous to its absorption. It occurs to a con- 
siderable amount in bread, especially in the crust, in biscuits, 
and in some prepared infants' foods, as those of Liebig and 
Nestle*. Beer contains a little dextrin. Starch, during digestion, 
is partly and temporarily changed into dextrin. 

2. Sugar is distinguished from starch by its solubility in cold 
water and its sweet taste. Its composition is slightly different 
also. But there are several kinds of sugar, which must be con- 
sidered separately. 

For specimens The best known sort of sugar is that which 

Cases 10 to 16. is sold under the name of cane sugar. Much of 
that consumed in England is derived from the sugar beet, a 
variety of Beta vulgaris, a plant believed to have originated in 
the sea beet. The roots of this plant, when of good quality 
and small size (2 to 3 lb.), contain from 10 to 13 per cent, of 
a sugar identical with that of the sugar-cane. Sugar beet is 
largely grown in France, Belgium, and Germany. It has also 
been raised successfully in England on a small scale. 

The oldest and best-known source of this kind of sugar is 
the sugar-cane {Saccharum officinarum\ a handsome plant of 
the grass order, a native of Southern Asia. It grows to the 
height of 12 or even 15 feet. It has been long cultivated in 
most parts of tropical and sub-tropical Asia, and in the islands 
of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. From India it was brought 
to Europe, many centuries ago, and was afterwards introduced 
to and largely grown on the American continent. Our present 
supplies of cane sugar come from Brazil, Mauritius, and the 



30 SUGAR. 

West Indies. To prepare this sugar the canes are cut down when 
they begin to flower, close to the ground, the juice thoroughly 
expressed from them, clarified and boiled down. " Raw " or 
" brown " sugar is the first product, along with molasses (except 
where the ingenious process called concreti?ig is adopted, when no 
molasses are formed). By refining brown sugar — that is, re- 
crystallising and purifying by the aid of charcoal and lime, &c. — 
cleaner, purer, and drier crystalline sugars are got, and it is in 
these later refining processes that treacle and golden sirup 
are obtained. These sirupy liquids contain about 65 per cent, 
of uncrystallisable sugar, with some saline matters and other 
impurities, while the remainder is water. Sugar-candy is the 
purest form of sugar ; white loaf sugar comes next ; then the 
pale, dry, large-grained crystallised sugars ; while all the coloured 
moist sugars are of inferior purity, invariably containing not 
only water and uncrystallisable sugar, but also mineral and 
organic compounds. They are not unfrequently largely infested 
by a small insect, the sugar-mite (Acarus sacchari), many thou- 
sands of which have been frequently detected in a single pound 
of brown sugar. Whatever may have been the case formerly, 
sugar is not now adulterated, save, perhaps, with the kind of 
artificial sugar called glucose \ but sugar is often insufficiently 
purified. 

Many other grasses besides the sugar-cane contain large pro- 
portions of sugar. For instance, sugar has been made from the 
stalks of maize or Indian corn, cut just before flowering. The 
Chinese sugar-grass, or sugar-millet (Sorghum saccharatum), is 
another sugar-producing plant. It has been introduced into 
and successfully grown in France, Italy, Southern Russia, the 
United States, and Australia. A closely-allied species, called 
Imphee, is grown by the Zulu Kaffirs, and yields not only 
sugar in its stems but much valuable starchy food in its seeds. 
The seeds, indeed, of all the kinds of Sorghum aire very 
nutritious, and are used, amongst other purposes, for feeding 



SUGAR. 



3i 



poultry. All the derivatives of sugar — molasses, rum, wine, 
vinegar, &c. — have been obtained from the sugar-grass; the 
manufacture of sugar, &c, from this plant in the States is, how- 
ever, declining. 

Another source of sugar is the sugar maple, Acer saccharimim 7 
with other allied species, as A. pennsylvanicum, A. negundo, and 
A. dasycarfium. These trees of Canada and the northern United 
States contain a sap in which about 2 per cent, of cane sugar 
occurs. In the spring the sap is collected and boiled down. 
It is stated that 1,546,000 lb. of maple sugar were produced in 
Pennsylvania in 1870. 

Jaggary is a sugar obtained chiefly from the flowering shoots of 
two Indian palms, Phcenix sylvestris and Caryota urens. But many 
other palms, as the coco-nut and the Palmyra palm, yield abun- 
dance of a sugary juice known as " toddy " when freshly drawn 
or fermented, and " arrack " when distilled. From these palms, 
and from the Arengo saccharifera and Nifia fruticans, palms of 
the Indian Archipelago, as well as from the date palm, Phmnix 
dactylifera, jaggary sugar is made. 

It has been stated that 700,000 tons of sugar, from beet-roots, 
are annually prepared in Europe, an amount which is about half 
of the total European import of sugar from the sugar-cane. 

Many other plants besides those named above contain cane- 
sugar. The expanding buds of trees, as of the birch (Behda alba), 
yield a sap which by fermentation becomes birch wine, formerly 
made to some extent in Scotland. The following list gives, 
approximately, the proportions of ordinary sugar contained in a 
few important vegetable products, &c. 

Sugar (Saccharose or Sucrose) in 100 lb. of 







lb. 






lb. 


Dried carob beans- - 


- 


- 51 


Chinese sugar-grass 


- 


- 9 


Sugar-cane juice 


- 


- 18 


Maize-stem juice - 


- 


- 7 


Beet-root - - - 


- 


- 11 


Sugar maple sap - 


- 


- 2 



32 SUGAR. 

It may be added that the solubility of cane sugar is such that 
two ounces require but one ounce of cold water to dissolve them. 
Sugar has the specific gravity 1*59. It is not absorbed into the 
blood as cane sugar, but is previously converted, both by the acids 
of the gastric-juice and by the nitrogenous matters of the food 
during digestion, into the variety of sugar called grape sugar, or 
glucose. 

Sugar is extensively used to preserve fruits. Fruits boiled 
with sugar yield jams, preserves, and fruit jellies. Many fruits 
may also be preserved whole in sirup of sugar, or they may be 
subsequently dried, when they become " candied " or " crystal- 
lised."* 

Grape sugar comes next in importance to cane sugar. Just 



* Collections of fruits preserved by the aid of sugar are shown. 

The following specimens of sugar are shown in Cases io to 18 : — Raw 
sugar of the crop of 187 1, manufactured at the Colonia de San Pedro 
Alcantara, Malaga, Spain. — A series of raw and refined sugars from various 
parts of the world, illustrating the process of sugar-refining : also a diagram 
of a sugar-refinery. — Two specimens of sugar-cane grown on the Grove Estate, 
Montserrat, West Indies.— A series of specimens of the various products ob- 
tained in the manufacture of sugar from sugar-beet, from Valenciennes. — 
White and brown sugar from Formosa. — Confectionery : Almonds, comfits, 
candy, and a variety of table ornaments made of sugar. — Various specimens of 
ornamental sugar-work, with samples of the materials used in making the 
same. — A series of fruits preserved with and without sugar, sugar confectionery, 
ornamental sugar- work, &c. — Lozenges of different sorts. — Samples of maple 
sugar. — Samples of raw and refined sugar from Cuba, Penang, Jamaica, Porto 
Rico, Mauritius, Bengal, and.Demerara; also refiners' sugar, termed "pieces," 
and refuse sugar from refineries. — A collection of raw and refined sugars from 
the French colonies of Reunion, Martinique, Guiana, Guadaloupe, Mayotte, 
Tahiti, and Cochin- China. — Also a series of samples of raw sugars from Java. 
— Samples of raw sugar from sugar-canes grown in the neighbourhood of the 
Clarence River, New South Wales, Australia. 

The specimens named above illustrate not only the numerous sources of the 
chief kind of sugar, known as sucrose or saccharose to scientific chemists, but 
they also show to some extent the processes of the manufacture, and the by- 
products obtained in the treatment of the raw material. Many Of the uses to 
which sugar is put, such as the preservation of- fruits, the manufacture of 
lozenges, confectionery, cordials, sirups, and wines, may also be studied in the 
collection. 



GRAPE SUGAR, 33 

as the latter sugar is found in many plants besides the sugar-cane, 
so grape sugar is abundantly distributed through the vegetable 
kingdom. More than this, it may be readily made from starch, 
dextrin, and cane sugar, by the action of weak acids. But, 
perhaps, a still more remarkable mode of obtaining this sugar 
is by means of the action of strong sulphuric acid or oil of 
vitriol, upon cellulose, the compound which forms the main 
substance of paper, cotton, linen rags, and some woods. Thus 
it happens that all these substances are now used for the manu- 
facture of grape sugar, or glucose as it is called. This glucose, 
being immediately fermentable, may be used to strengthen the 
worts in brewing, and for the direct production of alcohol. 
So spirit may be made from old rags and waste pawnbrokers' 
tickets ! 

Grape sugar, or glucose, exists in three forms at least. Two 
„ . of these, dextrose and lsevulose, make up the main 

Honey from 7 7 r 

IndTonictSd'by bulk of nonev J* tne tnird > maltose, occurs in malt, 
ferent flowersf fs a sprouted grain. The variety of glucose called 
shown m Case 20. dextrose exists largely in sweet fruits, as the grape, 
and crystallises out in hard warty masses when ripe grapes are 
dried, as in the case of raisins and French plums. The laevulose 
of honey and of acid fruits will not crystallise, but can only be 
dried up into a glassy or resinous mass. These sugars, as well as 
maltose, are less sweet than cane sugar. They are immediately 
absorbed into the circulation when taken into the stomach. They 
are valuable nutrients, especially for the young, but may give rise 
in some disordered conditions of the stomach to an unusual pro- 
duction of lactic acid, two proportions of which are producible 
from one proportion of any of these sugars. 

The quantities of glucose or similar sugars present in a few 



* In Case 20 will be found a series of specimens of honey from France and 
French Colonies. Also Russian specimens of honey, collected by bees from 
different plants, chiefly wild. 



34 OILS AND FATS. 

important vegetable products may be seen in the following 
table :— 

Glucose (that is, Dextrose, L^vulose, Maltose, &c. ) in ioo lb. of 



lb. 
Honey, or nectar of flowers - 80 
Dried Turkey figs - - - 57 
Grapes ----- 13 



lb. 
Tomatoes - - - - - 6 
Malted barley - - - - 5 
Cucumbers - - - - - 2 



Milk sugar has the composition of cane sugar, but many of the 
properties of grape sugar, into which it is converted when consumed 
as food : it also yields butyric and lactic acids. Milk sugar has 
comparatively little sweetness, and is less soluble than the pre- 
viously-named sugars : its crystals contain one proportion of water 
of crystallisation. This sugar is often called lactose, and is found 
as one of the characteristic ingredients of the milk of mammals. 
In 100 parts of cows' milk there are over 5 parts of lactose. 

A few other sugars of minor importance remain to be men- 
tioned. There is Inosite, or muscle sugar, which has been found 
in the human body, in ox brain, and extract of meat. There is 
Mannite, the sugar-like substance of manna, a substance pro- 
duced by several kinds of ash, chiefly by Fraxinus ornus. We 

Preparations have also the sweet substance, glycyrrhizin, found 

of liquorice in . . . . . . . 

Case 19. in the liquorice plant (G-lycy?'r/uza glabra), which is 

used as a sweetmeat and flavourer. Pomfret, or Pontefract, cakes 
are made from native-grown liquorice, the plant being cultivated 
at Pontefract, in Yorkshire. It is doubtful whether the last- 
named sugar-like substances, mannite and glycyrrhizin, are true 
nutrients. No experiments have been made with these compounds, 
nor with the sugar-like bodies from some seaweeds, pine-needles, 
&c. &c, which have been found to differ from the well-known 
sugars already noticed. 

3. The Oils or Fats form a very distinct and important'section of 
the group of heat-givers. Like starch and sugar, they can form 



OILY SEEDS AND FRUITS. 



35 



no muscular tissue, but their power of maintaining the heat 
and activity of the body is nearly 2*4 times that of the starchy 
nutrients. So far as their feeding properties are concerned, oils 
are identical with fats, the distinction between the substances 
thus named referring chiefly to their condition of liquidity or 
solidity. Wax, on the other hand, though probably of similar 
value as a nutrient, differs somewhat from oils and fats, notably in 
not yielding glycerin. 
Case 21 con- Oils and fats may be considered as formed from 

tains specimens _ . ., , .. , , , , 

of oils and fats. a fatty acid on the one hand, and glycerin on the 
other. Indeed, if three proportions of one of these acids, say 
palmitic acid, be heated with one proportion of glycerin in a 
closed tube, these substances disappear, palm oil or palm fat and 
water being produced. This palm fat, which is a glyceride, is 
called palmitin, and forms, with two similarly-constituted com- 
pounds, known as stearin and olein, most of the important fixed 
oils and fats, whether vegetable or animal. In many of these, 
however, other glycerides occur, as small quantities of butyrin and 
caproin in butter. 

The quantities o .oil or fat contained in some important vege- 
table and animal products are quoted in the following table : — 



Oil or Fat in ioo lb. of 



lb. 

Palm-nut (pulp) - - - 72 

Brazil-nuts (seeds) - - - 67 

Almonds (kernels) - - - 53 

Ground-nut (seeds of Arachis 

hypogced) - - - 52 

Sesame (seeds) - - - - 51 

Palm-nut (kernels) - - - 47 

Poppy (seeds) - - - - 45 

Olives (kernels) - 44 

Cacao (whole seeds) - - - 44 

Olives (pulp) - - - - 39 

Linseed - - - - 38 



lb. 

Coco-nut (kernels) - - - 36 

Hemp seed - - - - 32 

Walnuts (kernels) - - - 32 

Gold of pleasure (seeds) - - 32 

Cotton (seeds) - - - - 24 

Sunflower (seeds) - - - 22 

Fresh Scotch oatmeal - - 10 
Maize (seeds) 5 

Millet (seeds) 5 

Wheaten bran 4 

Peas (seeds) 3 

Wheaten flour I 

D 2 



3 6 DIGESTION OF FATS. 

Fat in Animal Products. 



lb. 

Butter S7 

Bacon 65 

Mutton-chop (average) - - 35 



lb. 
Cheese (Gloucester) - - - 30 
Eggs (yolk and white) - - 1 1 
Cows' milk .... 4 



Oils are most abundant in the fruits and seeds of plants, and 
are present in insignificant quantities in their roots, stems, and 
leaves. 

Of the vegetable oils extracted and used as oil in preparing 
and cooking food, olive oil, expressed from olive pulp, is the 
most important, at all events, in Europe. It is obtained from 
the fleshy exterior of- the fruit of the olive {Oka Eur oped). 
Walnut oil (from Juglans regid) is also an agreeable and whole- 
some substitute for olive oil. Many kinds of fruits, nuts, or 
Case 2 1 contains seeds are eaten mainly on account of the oil they 

samples of many . , 

vegetable and contain. Amongst these may be named : almonds, 

animal oils, but- . 

tens, and fats.* chestnuts, walnuts, hazel-nuts, Brazil-nuts, pecan- 
nuts, hickory-nuts, pistachio-nuts, beech-nuts or mast, cashew- 
nuts, sapucaya-nuts, souari-nuts, pine seeds, &c. 

Oils and fats are but little changed during digestion. They 
are divided into minute particles or globules, and then form what 
is called an emulsion — such as may be produced by shaking some 
olive oil and gum water in a bottle together. This emulsification 
is mainly caused by the pancreatic juice ; the finely-divided 
globules of oil and fat are then absorbed by the villi of the small 
intestine. These structures (which are limited to the region in 
question) seem to pick out from the chyme, or intestinal contents, 
the fatty globules, which are then transferred to the branches of 
the lacteals in the villi; thence the fat reaches the alkaline blood, 
where it becomes saponified. 

* Black and white sesame seed from Formosa, with samples of oils obtained 
from each. In the same case is a sample of the oil from the Dugong [Halicore 
ausiralis), from Brisbane, Australia ; with other important animal and vegetable 
oils used as food. 



GUM, ETC. 37 

Besides its great use as a giver of heat, and therefore of 
mechanical force or energy, fat performs an important function in 
the body as the chief material of the adipose tissue. This fatty 
layer, where it exists beneath the skin, keeps in the warmth of the 
body ; while such stores of fat as exist in this form throughout 
the organism may be re-absorbed into the blood, and keep up 
the animal heat and activity during abstinence from food. 

Appendix to Group III — In the different parts of plants which 
are eaten as food there will be found many oxidizable or com- 
bustible carbon compounds which are neither starchy, saccharine, 
nor oily. As some of these compounds are known to be closely 
related to starch or sugar, and, indeed, have the same com- 
position in ioo parts, there is some ground for believing that 
they may serve the same purpose in the animal economy. 
And this conjecture is confirmed by many experiments, especially 
upon the lower animals. 

Case 3 . Gum, met with in many trees, as the apple, the 
plum, and some sorts of acacia, is near cane sugar in its com- 
position. It is usually accompanied by a little lime and potash, 
and is found dissolved in the juices of many stems and fruits. 
Gum arabic and gum Senegal are two good examples of this 
substance. Gum arabic is considered to be a mixture of arabate 
of lime and bassorin. 

Case 3. Mucilage is found in the bulbs of the onion, in 
quince seeds, and in linseed. It forms a jelly with water, but 
does not dissolve to a thin liquid like gum arabic. As the 
mucilage of linseed suffers changes resembling those of starch 
when the seed is allowed to sprout, it may be that it undergoes 
solution and absorption in the body also. 

Case 3. Pectose is found in many roots, as the turnip, and in 
many fruits as the pear and peach, especially while they are 
unripe. When boiled with water, it rapidly changes into vege- 
table jelly, to one variety of which the name of pectin has been 
given. Similar changes occur in the ripening of fruits. The 



3 8 CELLULOSE. 

firmness of various jams and preparations of fruit — as damson, 
plum, and red-currant jelly — is due to substances belonging to 
the pectose series. In the present handbook we have given these 
substances under the single name of "pectose;" partly to avoid 
needless complexity, and partly because of the imperfection of 
our methods of analysis, which do not yet enable us to give 
exacter particulars. There is good reason for believing that the 
substances belonging to the pectose group are capable of digestion 
and absorption in the human body. 

Case 3 . Cellulose has the same composition as starch and 
dextrin, and is nearly related to these compounds. It is, how- 
ever, insoluble even in hot water. Cellulose is nearly pure in 
cotton, and in the cell-walls of many of the fruits, stems, and 
roots which are eaten as food. It is doubtful whether cellulose 
is digestible in the human organism, though it has been shown 
that it is digested by herbivora. But cellulose varies much in 
softness, texture, &c, and it is very likely that newly-formed 
cellulose may be changed and absorbed in part in the digestive 
process, while the firmer and older tissues containing the same 
substance may not be altered. These firmer tissues are, more- 
over, often of a different composition, for the cellulose is asso- 
ciated in many of them with certain yellowish substances, which 
are richer in carbon than cellulose, though their exact nature is not 
yet made out. It will be convenient to group them together 
under the name lignose. Lignose is specially abundant in hard 
woods, like box, while cellulose makes up the greater part of soft 
woods, like pine. The fruit of the apple contains a good deal of 
cellulose and a mere trace of lignose ; while in wheaten bran both 
compounds are abundant. 

We are now in a position to consider the relative values of 
the several heat-giving and force-producing nutrients which have 
been described; but a few words may be. first introduced as to 
some points of difference between these compounds. 

The rate at which these different heat-givers are digested and 



STARCH, SUGAR, AND OILS COMPARED. 39 

assimilated differs greatly; and, as we have already seen, these 
processes of digestion are not performed by the same agencies 
and in the same regions of the organism. The' greater part of 
the alimentary canal is the seat of such changes, yet portions of 
certain nutrients — especially when they are consumed in undue 
proportions and quantities — escape digestion. To give an ex- 
ample of how an important nutrient differs according to its source 
in the vegetable kingdom we may cite the case of starch. It has 
been found that uncooked starch from Indian corn may be com- 
pletely turned into sugar by the action of the saliva in 3 minutes, 
oat-starch in 6 minutes, wheat starch in 40 minutes, and potato 
starch in 3 hours — the quantities, &c, being the same in each 
case. But after thorough cooking all starches require nearly the 
same time. Common sugar is rapidly and perfectly changed into 
grape sugar before assimilation ; while the latter, of course, needs 
no alteration to fit it for absorption. Fats, we have seen, are 
modified mechanically rather than chemically. 

The following numbers represent the proportions by weight 
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in 100 parts of the several 
members of this, the third group of nutrients : — 





Starch, 


Cane Sugar, 


Grape Sugar, 


Oils and 




Dextrin, 


Milk Sugar, 


Fruit Sugar, 


Fats 




Inulin. 


Mucilage, Gum. 


Muscle Sugar. 


(Average). 


Carbon 


44-4 


42'I 


40*0 


76-4 


Hydrogen - 


6-2 


6-4 


6 7 


12-3 


Oxygen 


49 "4 


5i-5 


53'3 


11/3 



The weight of carbon in 1 lb. of each of the above substances 
is shown as follows : — 

Carbon in I lb. of — oz. gr. 

Starch and allied compounds - - - - 7 52 
Cane sugar and allied compounds 6 322 

Grape sugar and allied compounds - - - 6 1 75 

Oils and allied compounds - - - - 12 98 

It should be recollected that in the case of the oils and fats, 
not only is the carbon available for the production of heat and 



4 o FLESH-FORMERS. 

force within the body, but the hydrogen, or most of it, may be 
similarly used. A good notion of the relative values of the 
above-described four classes of carbon-compounds in their heat- 
giving and force-producing capacity may be gathered from the 
results obtained in Dr. Frankland's experiments. He burnt these 
compounds in oxygen, and determined the actual' amounts of heat 
they severally set free. Now, we know that heat and. mechanical 
energy or work may be changed the one into the other. And 
it has also been proved that heat and work have a definite quan- 
titative relation to one another, so that the heat required to warm 
i lb. of water i° Fah. may be changed into the amount of 
mechanical power requisite to lift 772 lb. 1 foot high. Thus, we 
may express the total heat producible by the complete combustion 
or oxidation of 1 lb. of these food-constituents in the form of so 
many pounds or tons raised 1 foot high : — 

Tons raised 
1 ft. high. 

Starch (arrowroot) - - - 2,427 

Cane sugar - - - - <- - ■ - 2,077 

Grape sugar - - - - *-'.•_ - 2,033 

Oil (cod-liver) 5,649 

According to Helmholtz, the greatest amount of mechanical 
work, outside the body, which a man could be enabled to perform 
by the combustion within the body of 1 lb. of each of the 
above substances would be about one-fifth of the amount given 
in the above table. This subject has been already referred to 
on p. 2, and will be again the occasion of some further remarks 
when the questions of the daily supply of food and of different 
dietaries are under discussion. 

§ 7. — Nitrogenous Compounds or Flesh-formers. 

The fourth group of nutrients in food is marked out from 
those previously considered by the presence of the element 
nitrogen — the element which forms 79 parts, by measure, in 100 



ALBUMEN. 41 

of common air; which is present in nitre, nitric acid, and 
ammonia; and which is so much more abundant in animals 
than in vegetables. These nitrogenous compounds have been 
variously termed — 

Albuminoids, 

Proteids, 

Flesh-formers. 

When, in the following pages, we are speaking of the con- 
stituents of different foods in their relations to the nutrition of 
the body, the term "flesh-formers" will be used; when these com- 
pounds are referred to from a merely chemical point of view, 
they will be described under the general name of " albuminoids," 
except in those instances where the prevailing kind of albuminoid 
in any food-stuff is characteristic and well known, when its specific 
name will be used. Thus the chief albuminoid in -wheat grain will 
be called fibrin, on account of that name having been assigned to 
that one of the three kinds of albuminoids which specially abounds 
in the cereal grains. So casein, another kind of albuminoid, will 
be given in the analysis of peas, and albitmen in that of the turnip. 
Where the nature of the albuminoid is not precisely known, the 
general term " albuminoids " will be employed. And where the 
nitrogenous matter is not proved to be actually and truly albumi- 
noid, then it will generally be described as " nitrogenous matter " 
simply. But it is time to give an account of the several members 
of this group. 

Case 3. 1. Albumen, the main solid constituent of white of egg, 
gives its name to the whole group. , The blood of many animals 
contains this component. It is a common ingredient of most 
vegetable juices, and is found in considerable quantity in certain 
seeds. It exists in two states, one soluble in water, the other 
insoluble. The soluble form may be easily changed into the in- 
soluble by heating its solution to about 120 Fah.,, or by 
the addition of nitric acid. It is considered by some physiologists 



42 FLESH-FORMERS. 

to be the most easily digested of all the flesh-formers, ioo parts 
of pure dry albumen contain, carbon 53*5, hydrogen 7*0, 
nitrogen 15*5, sulphur r6, oxygen 22*4. 

Case 3 . 2. Fibrin, like albumen, occurs in vegetables as well as 
animals. Wheat grain, for instance, contains about 10 or 11 per 
cent, and beef muscle, free from fat, &c, about 15. The clot of 
blood contains much fibrin. The fibrin from different sources 
is not identical in properties or composition; indeed, some so- 
called fibrins may really be mixtures of two or more slightly 
different compounds. The most important animal fibrins are 
blood-fibrin, and the myosin and syntonin of muscle. 

Case 3 . 3. Casein is the third albuminoid of general occurrence. 
Three-fourths of the nitrogenous matter in milk are casein ; there 
is casein in the yolks of eggs ; the so-called legumen of peas and 
other pulse is either identical with, or nearly related to, casein. 
Casein is distinguished from other albuminoids by the ease with 
which even acetic or other weak acids coagulate it ; and by its 
less easy and rapid digestibility when of animal origin : vegetable 
casein is now said to be quickly digested. 

In the muscular tissue or flesh of many animals eaten as food, 
and in the various liquids of their bodies, other albuminoids 
besides the three named are to be found. For the purpose now 
in view, it is sufficient to know that these matters are in all like- 
lihood of equal value with the better-known albuminoids, as flesh- 
forming nutrients. One of them, however, is of peculiar character, 
on account of the presence in it of a small quantity of iron (0-42 
per cent.). This compound is the red colouring matter of the 
blood — hemoglobin, a most important substance, intimately con- 
cerned in the nutrition and aeration of the blood. Perhaps the 
digestive ferment of the saliva (fityalin) and that of the gastric 
juice (pepsin) may also be ranged amongst the albuminoids. 

Appendix to Group IV. — Amongst the nitrogenous nutrients 
found in the parts of animals consumed as food are several com- 
pounds, of which we cannot affirm that they are true flesh-formers. 



GELATIN. 43 

They are probably turned to some account in the human body, 
but every constituent in that complex organism may be made 
without their aid ; for persons living wholly on vegetable foods do 
not consume these substances at all. These nitrogenous nutrients 
are familiar to us under such names as gelatin and isinglass (which 
are indeed the only nitrogenous nutrients separately sold), but 
there are other varieties of them, which should be briefly noticed 
here.* 

Case 3 . Ossein is that constituent of bones to which their 
strength and elasticity is due ; it is found also in connective 
tissue. It is insoluble in cold water and weak acids — indeed the 
best way of preparing ossein is to place a clean piece of fresh ox 
or sheep bone in a mixture of 1 part of hydrochloric acid and 
9 of water. After some time all the earthy matter of the bone 
will have been dissolved out, nothing being left but an elastic mass 
of ossein (with a little fat), retaining the shape of the original 
bone. 

Ossein contains rather less carbon, and rather more nitrogen, 
than the true albuminoids. Though insoluble in cold water, it is 
slowly dissolved by boiling water, becoming thereby converted 
into gelatin, a substance of the same composition, but slightly 
different properties. The change of ossein into gelatin takes 
place more readily when the water in which the bones are boiled 
is heated a few degrees above the boiling-point. This can be 
done by preventing the escape of steam — that is by heating the 
bones and water under pressure. The simple arrangement 
known as Papin's Digester answers this end perfectly, and enables 

* Isinglass is most prized when obtained from the sound or swimming 
bladder of the sturgeon {Acipenser of several species). It is chiefly- 
imported from Russia. Varieties of this substance, illustrating its qualities, 
manufacture, and application to ornamental purposes, are exhibited. — 
Ivory dust and shavings are sometimes used for making jellies. — Samples 
of these substances and of others used for similar purposes are shown in the 
collection. — Samples of jelly made from calves' feet, and flavoured with 
various fruits. 



44 PEPSIN. 

the full amount of nutritive matter to be dissolved out of bones 
which are intended to be used as stock for soups. 

Many other substances besides bones may be made to yield 
gelatin by long boiling with water. These are tendons, con- 
junctive tissue, calves' feet, fish scales, stag's horn. Isinglass, 
though not actually gelatin, is rapidly transformed into that sub- 
stance by boiling water, yielding one of the purest and most 
characteristic forms of gelatin known. Isinglass consists of the 
membrane of the swimming bladder of the sturgeon {Acipenser 
of various species). Much so-called isinglass is merely gelatin 
prepared from some of the materials we have named, or from 
the cuttings of parchment and vellum. Thus " Warranted Calves' 
Foot Jelly " may have been made from old legal documents ! 
Gelatin sometimes contains sulphuric acid. 

Case 3 . Cartilage does not yield gelatin when boiled, but an 
analogous substance called chondrin. This material contains less 
nitrogen (4 per cent, less) than gelatin ; it possesses somewhat 
different properties, and yields different products, 

Elastin and keratin, and similar matters from elastic tissue, 
skin, epidermis, &c, are included in the present sub-group ; they 
are of small or doubtful value as nutrients. They, as well as 
mucin, the nitrogenous constituent of mucus, are almost entirely 
unacted upon by the gastric juice. 

We are now in a position to compare the relative values of 
the several flesh-formers and allied compounds included in the 
nitrogenous nutrients. 

The albuminoids suffer no chemical change during masti- 
cation. But when they come in contact with the gastric juice in 
the stomach, their digestion commences. This juice contains 
two active ingredients, an acid or a mixture of acids, together 
with a neutral nitrogenous substance called pepsin. 

This pepsin is a digestive ferment ; by its aid, if acid be 
present and the temperature be suitable (about 98 °), albuminoids 
are all converted into substances bearing the name of peptones. 



NITROGENOUS NUTRIENTS. 45 

These are all soluble in water, and are not removed from the solu- 
tion by acids, alkalies, or salts ; they are all soluble, even in alcohol, 
if not very strong ; and they are diffusible. Casein before it 
becomes a peptone, is curdled; vegetable casein is rapidly 
changed and dissolved by gastric juice deprived of its pepsin. 
Fibrin, whether animal, as that in muscular flesh, or vegetable, as 
the so-called gluten of wheat grain, is rapidly broken up by the 
gastric juice, swelling up, and finally becoming a ropy, opaline 
liquid. Albumen, when soluble, is transformed into peptones 
without being previously curdled by the gastric juice; when 
insoluble, it is more slowly acted upon. The conversion of 
albuminoid nutrients into peptones, which can be absorbed into 
the circulation, is completed in the intestine, where several 
secretions aid in the processes of change. 

Little is known about the digestion and uses of gelatin and 
allied compounds. It is, however, certain that solution of gelatin, 
after having been acted upon by gastric juice, no longer solidifies to 
a jelly on cooling. Before these compounds can enter the circu- 
lation, they must be altered, since when introduced into the blood 
artificially they are excreted unchanged. 

The composition of the several nitrogenous nutrients is com- 
pared in the following table, where the weights of the carbon, 
hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, and oxygen in 100 parts of each 
important variety are shown : — 





Albumen. 


Fibrin 
of blood. 


Fibrin 
of muscle. 


Casein. 


Gelatin. 


Chondr 


Carbon 


- 53*5 • 


.527 " 


54 "o - 


53-8 - 


50-8 - 


50*0 


Hydrogen 


7-0 - 


6-9 - 


7'3 - 


yi - 


7-1 - 


6-6 


Nitrogen 


- I5-5 - 


I5-4 - 


i6-i - 


157 - 


iS-3 - 


H'S 


Sulphur 


i-6 - 


I "2 - 


i*i - 


0-9 - 


o-6 - 


0-4 


Oxygen 


22'4 - 


2 3 -8 - 


21-5 - 


23'5 - 


23-2 - 


28-5 



Thus the actual weight of carbon in 1 lb. of any average 
albuminoid may be set down as 8 oz. 245 gr. Before con- 
sidering what amount of work or actual energy this carbon and 
the hydrogen present correspond to, it would be as well to state 



46 USES OF ALBUMINOIDS. 

the various uses to which the albuminoids are put in the human 
body. For they serve — 

1st. For the building up and repair of the nitrogenous tissues of the body, espe- 
cially of the basis of flesh, that is, muscular fibre. As no other ingre- 
dient of food can fulfil this office, it is right that the albuminoids should 
bear the expressive name of flesh-formers. 

2nd. The albuminoids contain io per cent, more carbon than starch and 
sugar, and some part at least, though never the whole, of this carbon 
is available as a source of heat and work in the body, especially when 
the supply of the usual heat-givers is deficient. 

3rd. The albuminoids serve for the formation of a large number of nitrogenous- 
substances which are found in most parts of the body, but especially in 
brain and nerve-substance. These compounds are rich in nitrogen, and 
sometimes contain sulphur and phosphorus as well. 

4th. The albuminoids may contribute fat to the body. It is easy to obtain 
artificially the main constituents of fat by the action of chemical agents 
upon the albuminoids, compounds rich in nitrogen being formed at the 
same time : similar changes may and do occur in the body. 

The variety of offices performed by the albuminoids, when 
compared with the carbon compounds called heat-givers, which 
have been studied in the preceding section, is due in part to their 
complex character. This complexity arises from two causes — 
for these compounds are made up of 5 different elements instead 
of 3, while a very much larger number of atomic proportions of 
their elements are present than is the case with starch— probably 
several hundreds, instead of 21. But another reason for the 
variety of uses to which the albuminoids are put in the body 
arises from the presence of nitrogen, an element which confers a 
character of instability, of proneness to change, upon most of the 
compounds of which it forms part. The processes of life and 
growth, as well as of putrefaction and decay, occur in the presence 
of nitrogen compounds. 

There is no need to enlarge further now upon the 1st, 3rd, 
and 4th items of service named in the foregoing list as rendered 
by the albuminoids. But it may be useful if we introduce here a 
few remarks as to the relation of the . albuminoids to the per- 



FLESH AND FORCE-PRODUCERS. 47 

formance of work. It used to be thought that work — hard bodily 
exertion, as in ascending a mountain, in pedestrian feats, or in 
hammering iron — was done by the actual destruction of muscular 
substance itself. If this be true, we ought to find the proof of 
that destruction of muscle in an excessive excretion of the waste 
nitrogenous product known as urea, which is got rid of by the 
kidneys. But this is not the case, the excretion of urea not 
corresponding in amount to the work done. Yet during the per- 
formance of hard work an ample supply of albuminoids is found 
to be needed, probably by reason rather of the rate than of the 
extent of chemical change which violent exercise and hard work 
cause in the body. 

As to the function of nitrogenous matter in furnishing supplies 
of heat, and, therefore, of actual energy to the body, we have to 
remark that Dr. Frankland has experimented with pure albumen. 
Burnt in oxygen it set free an amount of heat which may be 
expressed in this way : — 1 lb. of this nitrogen-compound, during 
complete oxidation, liberates an amount of heat corresponding to 

Tons raised i ft. high. 
Albumen -------- 2,643 

At first sight it would seem from this number that the albu- 
minoids are more efficient force-producers (when so used in the 
body) than most of the true heat-givers, whose main office it is to 
furnish heat and energy to the system. But a special deduction 
must be made from these figures, for when nitrogenous matters 
are oxidized in the body, a small portion of the carbon and hy- 
drogen which they contain is carried away, with its potential 
energy unexpended, in the urea, &c, formed in the organism and 
excreted by the kidneys and intestine. Now, by determining the 
amount of potential energy remaining in that amount of urea 
which 1 lb. of albumen may be assumed to yield, Frankland 
concluded that a deduction of one-seventh must be made from 
the above number. Thus the available heat set free from the 



48 DAILY FOOD. 

oxidation of i lb. of albuminoid matter within the body cor- 
responds to 2,266 tons raised 1 ft. high, not to 2,643 tons - 
Albumen, then, ranks between starch and sugar as a heat-giver 
and force-producer. It may be well to remind our readers once 
more that only about one-fifth of this energy at the utmost can be 
available for work outside the body (see p. 40). 



-A Day's Ration. 



Thus far we have considered the uses of food, the composition 
of the human body, and the several compounds which are neces- 
sary for its nutrition. Let us now go on to study in some detail 
a day's ration — its composition, its work, and the changes which 
it undergoes in the body. 

The daily supply of food and the daily waste of the human 
body have been often made the subject of experiment. It will 
be understood at once that even with healthy adults the amount 
of food required will vary according to many circumstances. 
To begin with, there are peculiarities belonging to each individual ; 
then there are differences in the amount of work performed ; the 
heat or cold of the weather, as well as the condition and quality 
of the several kinds of food taken — all these things will influence 
the total quantity of food required in the twenty-four hours, as 
well as the proportions of the chief components which it should 
contain. But we may arrive at something like an average daily 
diet by taking the case of an adult man in good health, weighing 
1541b., and measuring 5 feet 8 inches in height. Simply to 
maintain his body, without loss or gain in weight, his ration of 
maintenance, or food, during the twenty-four hours should, under 
ordinary conditions, contain at least something like the following 
proportions and quantities of its main ingredients : — 



DAILY FOOD, 



49 



The Average Daily Diet for an Adult should contain- 

Case 22. 





In 
ioo parts. 


Each 24 hours. 




Water - - . - 
Albuminoids, or flesh-formers 
Starch, sugar, &c. 
Fat 

Common salt .... 
Phosphates, potash salts, &c. 


8i-5 
3 '9 

io*6 
3 -o 
o-7 
o'3 


lb. oz. gr. 

5 8 320 
04 no 
11 178 

3 337 
325 
00 170 



On adding the figures of the. second column together it will 
be seen that the total daily ration is here assumed to weigh 
(meat and drink included) 61b. 13 oz. 128 gr. Of this amount 
1 lb. 4 oz. 245 gr. is actual dry food substance, the remainder, 
more than 5^ lb., being water. In reality, the weight of dry 
food substance eaten will exceed that just named, chiefly for the 
following reason. We eat our food in the shape of a number 
of mixed animal and vegetable products, which contain many 
ingredients besides the water, albuminoids, starch, sugar, fat, and 
mineral salts named above. There is, for instance, always some 
fibrous material, called cellulose and lignose, in the parts of plants 
on which we live; there are also present other substances, as 
colouring matters, which have little or no feeding value. These 
are excluded from the above table, but always present in our 
food. Even in animal food, materials like membranes, connec- 
tive tissues, and gelatin are present; but these are not to be 
regarded as essential or necessary components of a daily ration, 
as their use in nourishing the body is limited and doubtful. 

This seems the proper place to give an example of an actual 
dietary — that is, to show what amounts of common articles of 
food must be taken each day in order to furnish the body with its 
average supply of necessary aliment. Were we to mix the pure 
water, albumen, starch, fat, and salts, shown in our table, 

E 



5 o DAILY FOOD. 

together, even in the right proportions, the mixture would not be 
a perfect food, for it would be wanting in at least one particular — 
it would not be pleasant in taste. Our food must be palatable, 
that we may eat it with relish and get the greatest nourishment 
from it. The flavour and texture of food — its taste, in fact — 
stimulates the production of those secretions — such as the saliva 
and the gastric juice — by the action of which the food is digested 
or dissolved, and becomes finally a part of the body, or is 
assimilated. As food, then, must be relished, it is desirable that 
it should be varied in character — it should neither be restricted 
to vegetable products on the one hand, nor to animal substances 
(including milk and eggs) on the other. By due admixture of 
these, and by varying occasionally the kind of vegetable or meat 
taken, or the modes of cooking adopted, the necessary con- 
stituents of a diet are furnished more cheaply, and at the same 
time do more efficiently their proper work. Now, if we were to 
confine ourselves to wheaten bread, we should be obliged to eat, 
in order to obtain our daily supply of albuminoids, or ""flesh- 
formers," nearly 41b. — an amount which would give us nearly 
twice as much of the starchy matters which should accompany 
the albuminoids — or, in other words, it would supply not more 
than the necessary daily allowance of nitrogen, but almost twice 
the necessary daily allowance of cai'bon. Now, animal food is 
generally richer in albuminoid, or nitrogenous constituents, than 
vegetable food ; so by mixing lean meat with our bread, we may 
get a food in which the constituents correspond better to our 
requirements; for 2 lb. of bread may be substituted by 12 oz. 
of meat, and yet all the necessary carbon as well as nitrogen be 
thereby supplied. As such a substitution is often too expensive, 
owing to the high price of meat, cheese, which is twice as rich 
in nitrogenous matters (that is flesh-formers) as butchers' meat, 
may be, and constantly is, employed with bread as a complete 
diet, and for persons in health, doing hard bodily work, 'it affords 
suitable nourishment. Even some vegetable products, rich in 



A BAY'S RATION. 5 i 

nitrogen, as haricot beans, may be used in the same way as meat 
or cheese, and for the same purpose. 

Such a mixed daily diet as we have been referring to might 
be furnished by the following foods if consumed in the quantities 
here given : — 











oz. 




i. Bread 


- 


- 


- 


18 




2. Butter - 


- 


- 


- 


I 




3. Milk 


- 


- 


- 


4 




4. Bacon . - 


- 


- 


- 


2 


Altogether these quan- 


5. Potatoes - 


_ 


_ 


. 


8 


tities will contain about 


6. Cabbage - 


. 


. 


. 


6 


' * M' SH oz ' °f dry sub- 


7. Cheese - 


. 


_ 


. 


VA 


stance, though they weigh 


8. Sugar 


. 


. 


- 


1 


in all bib. 14% oz. 


9. Salt 


- 


- 


- 


°H 




10. Water, alone, 


and 


in 


Tea, 






Coffee, Beer 


- 


- 


- 


66*, 





It will be seen that the weight of this daily ration exceeds 
by 1 oz. — even when the solid matter contained in beverages 
is omitted — that given before (on p. 49) ; this excess is mainly 
owing to the fact, previously mentioned, that in all articles of food 
actually used there are small quantities of matters (cellulose, &c.) 
which cannot be reckoned as having a real feeding value. And 
it must not be forgotten that the several common proximate 
principles which can and do supply the greater part of the heat of 
the body have not all the same value for such a purpose. Of 
starch and dextrin we should require rather less than of sugar for 
the production of the same amount of force, while 1 oz. of fat 
or oil will go nearly as far as 2)4 oz. of starch. This allows 
of much variation in our daily food, since we may replace, to a 
certain extent, a portion of the fat in our rations by its equivalent 
quantity of starch or dextrin or sugar — or we may diminish the 
starch and increase the fat. In the former case the dry substance 
of our food might come to weigh 4 or 5 oz. more than the 
20^ oz. mentioned before; in the latter case it would weigh 
less. 

£ 2 



52 DAILY. WASTE OF THE BODY. 

Suppose, for instance, we were to take, daily, no more than 
3 oz. of fat in any form, we should have to add about 2^ oz. 
of starch or sugar to compensate for this reduction, thus con- 
suming 14 oz. of the latter instead of nj^. 

Here it may be asked — " Which of the articles of the above 
mixed diet give the several components of food which we require 
each day ? " A sufficient answer to this inquiry may be gained 
by referring to the composition of the several articles of food 
named, as given in this Guide, and as shown in the Cases of the 
Food Collection. Here it will be enough to state that the bread 
consumed chiefly supplies starch, but along with this a good deal 
of albuminoid substance ; the milk gives fat, albuminoids, and a 
sugar, having nearly the same value as starch ; the cheese contains 
much fat and albuminoid substance ; the bacon and butter chiefly 
furnish fat; while the other articles in the list either give further 
supplies of these food-components, or else the mineral matter or 
salts which are required. The first seven, articles in the list will 
likewise contain about 1 lb. 6^ oz. of water, which, with that 
supplied in various beverages, will furnish the 5 lb. 8% oz. daily 
necessary. 

Before considering different foods and dietaries, it will be as 
well if we now pay some attention to the waste of the body. ■ We 
will endeavour to answer the question : What becomes of our 
food after it has been digested and assimilated, and has done its 
work in our bodies ? We have seen what is the amount, and 
what the composition of the daily in-goings, or food ; let us see 
what is the amount and the nature of the out-goings, or waste. 
Before we can make the comparison, we must recur for a moment 
to the general nature of the final change which food undergoes in 
the body. That change, we have before shown, is in the main 
one of burning, or, as it is called in chemical language, oxidation. 
It is the uniting of certain elements contained in the food — chiefly 
carbon and hydrogen — with oxygen, brought into the lungs by the 
act of breathing. The air, then, is, in a sense, part of our food, 



DAILY SUPPLY OF THE BODY. 53 

and forms a large part of the daily in-come of the body; As the 
oxygen taken in unites with the carbon and hydrogen of the food, 
we must not expect to find that the proximate principles consti- 
tuting the main mass of our daily food will be found in any 
quantity in the daily waste. How then can we compare the 
in-goings and the out-goings ? Why, by considering the amounts 
of the chief ele??ients of which the proximate principles consist, 
and comparing them with the amounts of the same elements which 
are discharged in the oxidized waste of the body. In accordance 
with this way of representing the facts, we now give in a tabular 
form the daily supply and waste of the human body. First, we 
set down the weight of the several elements which. make up the 
necessary daily food or 

Case 23. 

Daily Supply. 

lb. oz. gr. lb. oz. gr. 

Oxygen in the air breathed - - - I 10 115 
Oxygen in starch, albuminoids, and fat o 7 370 

Total oxygen .... 2 2 47 

Carbon in fat, starch, albuminoids 09 400 

Hydrogen in the same - - o 11 70 

Nitrogen in albuminoids ------- 00 291 

Common salt - - ' - - - - - - o o 325 

Phosphates, potash salts, &c. 001 70 

Water 5 8 320 

Total daily supply - - - 8 7 410 

It will be here seen that four elements only are set down in the 
separate form as elements in the above table. These are oxygen, 
carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, so far as these elements enter 
into the composition of, that is, form part of, the proximate prin- 
ciples which we consume as our food, and which we change into 
new compounds in the body. The salt and other minerals of the 
food, together with the water we consume, are not so changed, 
and therefore these substances are not resolved into their elements 
in the table of Daily Supply, nor in that which follows, repre- 
senting . 



54 DAILY WASTE OF THE BODY. 

Case 23. 

Daily Waste. 

Ib. oz. gr. lb. or. gr. 
Oxygen in the carbonic acid gas given out by the 

lungs 1 7 3 2 5 

Oxygen in the carbonic acid gas given out by the 

skin - - - o o in 

Oxygen in the organic matter given out by the kid- 
neys and intestine ° ° 357 

Oxygen in the water formed in the body - - - o 9 130 

Total oxygen in waste - 2 2 47 

Carbon in the carfeonic acid gas given out by the 

lungs 08 320 

Carbon in the carbonic acid gas given out by the 

skin - 00 40 

Carbon in the organic matter given out by the 

kidneys 00 170 

Carbon in the organic matter given out by the in- 
testine - - -- - - --00 308 

Total carbon in waste o 9 400 

Hydrogen in the water formed in the body, and 

given out by the lungs and skin - - - o I 70 

Hydrogen in the organic compounds given out by 

the kidneys and intestine - - - --00 100 
Total hydrogen found in the water formed, 

and in the organic matter of the waste - o I 1 70 

Nitrogen in urea and other waste given out by 

the kidneys - 00 245 

Nitrogen in waste given out by the intestine - - o o 46 

Total nitrogen in waste _... 00 29 1 

Common salt given out by the skin - - - -0010 
Common salt given out by the kidneys - - -00315 

Total common salt in waste - 00 325 

Phosphates and potash salts given out by the kidneys 

(chiefly) 00 170 

Water taken in as such, and given out by the lungs, 

skin, kidneys, and intestine, in addition to that 

formed in the body - 5 8 320 

Total daily waste - - - - " - 8 7 410 

These figures, then, represent the daily balance-sheet of the 
income and expenditure of a human body — not exactly, and per- 
fectly, but with a fair approach to truth. During the changes, 
mainly of oxidation, or burning, which are shown by the new 



RECAPITULATION. 55 

compounds found in the waste and not in the supply, it is cal- 
culated that an amount of force is available, in one form or another 
of heat or mechanical work, which may be expressed as 3,950 tons 
raised 1 ft. high. 

Let us briefly restate the main facts concerning the food of 
man which we have been discussing in the preceding pages. 

1. Food is required to increase or repair the materials of the 
body; to keep it warm, and to endow it with a renewal of working 
power. 

2. The materials of the human body are arranged in many 
compound substances. These are made up of 16 elements; the 
same elements generally arranged in similar compounds being 
found in food. 

3. Food substances, or nutrients, fall into two groups — the in- 
combustible or oxidized, and the combustible or oxidizable. 
Water and salts belong to the former ; starch, sugar, fat, and com- 
pounds like the albumen of eggs, to the latter. 

4. Incombustible nutrients serve several purposes, forming a 
permanent part of the body, and also acting as a means of 
carrying on the processes of nutrition. 

5. Combustible nutrients are burnt more or less completely 
within the body by means of the oxygen taken into the lungs. 
The power of doing work, or potential energy, stored up in these 
nutrients and in the oxygen, is thus changed into the actual 
energy of heat and mechanical power. Thus the warmth of the 
body is maintained, and work done both internal and ex- 
ternal. 

6. Combustible nutrients increase or replace the fat, muscle, 
•&c, of the body. 

7. The daily waste of the body must be met by a daily 
.supply of nutrients in the daily ration of food. In an adult the 
supply and waste are equal in amount, but different in the nature 
of the compounds, though identical if the elements are con- 
sidered. 



5 6 RECAPITULATION. 

8. The daily ration must contain the various nutrients re- 
quired in due proportions of flesh-formers, heat-givers, saline 
matter, and water. The ratio may be expressed in numbers 
thus : — 



Water. Flesh-formers.. ^StSk* SaltS - 

25 IX S l A °X 



PART II— OF VEGETABLE FOODS. 



Although repeated reference has been made already to different 
vegetable products, we have not given as yet any account of the 
chemical composition of particular kinds of plants, or of those 
parts of plants used for human food. But as the compounds 
which make up nearly the whole of every vegetable have been 
described, and their respective uses as nutrients discussed, the 
way has been cleared for the study of some of the most im- 
portant actual foods, such as wheat, peas, cabbage, and turnips. 
The review of these vegetable foods having been completed, 
foods of animal origin — milk, cheese, eggs, bacon, and butchers' 
meat — will also be described in Part III. from a chemical point 
of view. And then in Part IV. will be given some account of 
the composition and characteristics of alcoholic liquors, tea, to- 
bacco, and various condiments and spices — of the accompani- 
ments of food or " food-adjuncts," as we have named them. 

§ i. — The Cereals. 

Naturally we give the first place to the breadstuffs — wheat, 
oats, rice, and other grains — the fruit of certain plants belonging 
to the Grass Order, or Graminacecz* 

# Cases 24 to 36 inclusive. A collection of many of the varieties 
of wheat, oats, and barley cultivated in Great Britain, and various 
foreign countries — in the straw and ear, and also in grain. — A collection of 
samples of wheat, barley, maize, oats, &c, from the Argentine Republic, 
South America. — Samples of wheat, barley, oats, rye, and maize, grown in 
localities bordering on the line of the North Pacific Railway, United States. 



5 8 VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 

Wheat. 

French, Bit. German, Weizen. Italian, Frumento. 
(Triticum vulgar 'e.) 

Wheat is an annual grass, of unknown origin. Numerous 
varieties of it are now in cultivation in nearly all temperate 
countries. It flourishes between the parallels of 25 and 60 
degrees of latitude. It is more extensively grown in the northern 
than in the southern hemisphere. . 

There are more than 150 named varieties of wheat, but in 
many cases the distinctions between them are very slight. The 
most important differences are those which refer to the composition 
of the grain ; but it will be found that these do not always agree 
with the outward characters of the grain or the ear. Wheats are 
generally characterised by some such terms as the following : Red 
or white, in reference to the colour of the grain ; bearded or 
beardless, that is with or without an awn ; winter or summer, 
the former being sown in autumn, the latter in spring ; soft or 
hard, the soft wheats being tender and floury, the hard being 
tough, firm, and horn-like in appearance. This last distinction is 
the most important, as it corresponds to a real difference of 
chemical constituents and of feeding value. We shall recur to 
this point presently. 

Cases 24 to 29.* 

The average yield of an acre of land should be about 30 
bushels of wheat grain, the bushel weighing 60 lb. In wet seasons 
the weight of a bushel of wheat grain may be as low as 55 lb. ; 
while in good years it may rise to 64 lb. A plump, rounded, white, 
smooth grain, without wrinkles, gives the heaviest weight per 

* Various samples of wheat grown in South Australia in 1872. — Frame con- 
taining 104 varieties of wheat cultivated in Great Britain and' elsewhere. — 
Samples of the various products obtained from wheat, and the quantities of 
flour, pollard, and bran obtained from half a peck of wheat. Wheat is 
subject to the attacks of several forms of fungi, as seen in the diagrams. They 
are known to the farmer by the name of rust, mildew, smut, and bunt. 



COMPOSITION OF WHEAT. 59 

bushel. Wheat grain varies in specific gravity between 1*29 and 
1*41, the harder wheats being the denser. The proportion of 
grain to straw is greatest in dry years — perhaps the average may be 
stated as 4 to 10. 

The composition of wheat grain shows some variations, but 
they are limited to the relative proportions of starch and nitro- 
genous matters. Soft, white, and tender varieties of wheat, con- 
sisting entirely of opaque grains, may not contain more than 8 or 
9 per cent, albuminoids ; while hard and translucent sorts, such 
as those grown for the manufacture of macaroni, have been found 
to contain from 18 to 20 per cent. The starch in these latter 
grains is proportionately reduced. But differences in the com- 
position of wheat grain show themselves with the same variety of 
wheat, when it has been grown under different conditions, in 
fine, dry seasons the starch being increased and the albuminoids 
diminished, and the reverse being the case in wet summers. 
Even in the grains from a single ear, the same differences may be 
often seen — analysis showing sometimes 4 per cent, more albu- 
minoids in some of such grains than in others. 

It is difficult to fix upon a set of figures which shall fairly 
represent the average composition of wheat grain. But the 
following analysis may be taken as showing the proportions of the 
main constituents in a good sample of white English wheat : — 



Composition of Wheat. 

Case 37. In 100 parts. 

Water --------- 14-5 

Albuminoids, chiefly fibrin - - - - - li*o- 

S tar ch, with trace of dextrin- - - - - 69*0 

Fat 1-2 

Cellulose and lignose 2 '6 

Mineral matter, or ash - - - - - - 17 



According to this analysis, wheat contains 1 part of flesh- 
formers to 6)4 parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. And if 



In 


rib. 


oz. 


gr. 


2 


I40 


I 


332 


II 


17 


O 


84 


O 


lS2 


O 


119 



60 WHEAT. 

we assume that all the albuminoid matter present could be so 
used, not more than i ^ oz. of the dry nitrogenous substance of 
muscle or flesh could be produced from i lb. of wheat grain, such 
as is represented by the above analysis. The long, hard, trans- 
Cases 40 and 41.* lucent wheats grown in some of the hotter parts of 
Europe, might furnish twice as much flesh-forming material from 
an equal weight of grain. Macaroni, vermicelli, pates d'ltalie, 
and similar preparations are made from highly nitrogenous wheats. 

Some notion of the importance of wheat as a food-stuff may 
be gathered from the following figures. In 1875 there were 
about 3,350,000 acres under wheat in Great Britain. But the 
produce of all this land did not suffice for the needs of the 
people, and the produce of about 4,500,000 acres in foreign 
countries had to be brought to the United Kingdom — the United 
States and Russia contributing most of this foreign supply. Alto- 
gether, something like 5,000,000 tons of wheat are annually con- 
sumed in Great Britain. Then, too, it should be remembered 
that large quantities of wheaten flour and other preparations of 
wheat reach this country from abroad. 

There are several reasons why wheat is preferred to other 
cereal grasses for use as food. The grain is easily separated 
from the palece or chaff, which do not adhere to it as in the 
case of barley, oats, rice, &c. Then the yield of fine white flour, 
when wheat is ground in the mill, is very large. Wheaten flour, 
too, is readily made into a light and spongy bread. The chemical 
constituents of the wheat grain are likewise so proportioned as to 
render this food well fitted for the general sustenance of man, 
both as regards its flesh-forming and heat and force-producing 
character. 

Mill-Products. 

But wheat grain is nearly always prepared by some mechanical 

* Samples of macaroni, vermicelli, and other Italian pastes, made from the 
flour of hard wheat, grown in Algeria. — Macaroni, vermicelli, semolina, &c> 
prepared from wheaten flour, from Portugal, Italy, France, &c. 



MILL-PRODUCTS FROM WHEAT. 61 

process or other before it is eaten as human food. Frumity, 
however, once popular in England, and still occasionally seen in 
Yorkshire, was made from whole wheat grains soaked in water 
and then boiled in milk. By grinding wheat between millstones 
meal is produced ; and this, by sifting, winnowing, and re-grinding, 
is separated into a number of mill-products differing, not only in 
the size of the particles of which they are made up, but also 
in their chemical composition. To understand this we must 
examine the structure of the wheat grain, which is in reality a 
fruit, consisting of a seed and its coverings. All the middle part 
of the grain is occupied by large thin cells full of a powdery sub- 
stance, which is nearly white and opaque in soft wheats. This 
part contains much starch — indeed, nearly all the starch of the 
grain. Outside the central starchy mass is a single row of squarish 
cells, filled with a yellowish material very rich in nitrogenous — 
that is, flesh-forming — matter. Beyond this again there are six 
thin coverings or coats containing much mineral matter. This 
mineral matter contains both potash and phosphates. It should 
be added that the outermost coat of the above-named six coats is 
the least valuable, and in some processes of milling is removed by 
a previous operation. In Child's " Decorticator," for example, 
this thin bran, together with the germ of the grain, is first of all 
removed. In the process of Mege Mouries, also, this thin and 
poor outer coat is removed, but by a different plan — the grain 
being first damped and then rubbed. What then will be the 
effect of grinding upon grain having the structure just described ? 
Grinding may be described as a process in which squeezes and 
blows are united. In pressing or squeezing wheat . you may 
powder the interior, and yet not break up the exterior part ; by 
blows you may divide the grain into a number of small fragments 
— a coarse meal, in which the white central portion of the grain is 
not reduced to powder. Now there are several modes of milling 
or grinding wheat, differing mainly in the preponderance of one 
or other of these two actions of squeezing and cracking. By 



62 FLOUR AND BRAN. 

alterations in the distance between the stones, and by differences 
in the modes of scoring them, as well as in their direction and 
rate of motion, mill-products of different qualities are obtainable. 
The methods of "high-milling" have, indeed, become so com- 
plicated that it would be impossible to describe here the scores of 
operations, including many re-grindings and siftings, to which the 
grain is submitted. But we may at least say that, though a very 
fine white flour is certainly produced by this system, it is far 
smaller in quantity and less nutritious than fine white flour ob- 
tained by the ordinary English system. However, one advantage 
is said to belong to the more elaborate system, and that is that 
the various mill-products are not injured by over-heating during 
the treatment to which they are subjected. 

In the ordinary process of milling the wheat meal is produced 
in one grinding, and is then separated into three or more different 
products. In some flour mills the separation of the various 
qualities is far more thoroughly carried out than in others. The 
following is a classified list of the chief products of a flour mill, 
with the average quantities of each product obtained from ioo lb. 
of good white wheat : — 

ib. 

i. Finest flour - -42 

2. Seconds flour --- 18 

-■■ '■ '■'" r < 3. Biscuit flour - - - - .'- - - - 9 

4. Tails, or tailings - - 3 

5 . Middlings, or fine sharps - - - - - S 

6. Coarse sharps - . 3 

Bran ^ ?• Fine pollard -------- 3 

8. Coarse pollard - - --.- - - - 6 

9. Long bran ---------3 

It must be recollected that the above quantities are merely 
given as rough approximations, while the names applied vary in 
different parts of the country and in different mills. The first 
three qualities, or wires, for instance, are. often sold together as 
" fine flour," while the quantity of this product is further raised 
(to 80 per cent, of the wheat taken) by re-dressing the tailings 
and re-grinding the middlings — which latter may be said to form 



FINE FLOUR. 63 

a kind of link between flour and bran. There are some mills 
where only three different degrees of fineness are recognised — 
flour, middlings, and bran. 

As the chemical differences between the various mill-products 
are not all of equal value, we may select a few facts regarding 
their components from the number which have been accumulated. 
The cellulose and lignose, as well as the mineral matter and fibrin, 
are least in the fine flour. The fibrin is greatest in the pollard, 
and the mineral matter in the long bran. It will thus be evident 
that fine flour is inferior to pollard in bone-forming and flesh- 
forming nutrients. The following table makes this clear, showing 
how rich in these nutrients all those mill-products are which 
cousist chiefly of the coverings of the seed. The toughness of 
these coverings is, of course, the reason why they are not reduced 
to a fine powder during the processes of milling. 

Case 37. 

One pound of 



Fine flour contains 
Tails „ 

Middlings „ 

Coarse sharps ,, 
Fine pollard ,, 
Coarse pollard ,, 
Long bran ,, 

Thin bran 



Fibrin. 


Mineral Matter. 


oz. gr. 


oz. gr. 


I 297 


O 50 


I 389 


O 76 


2 105 


O 147 


2 246 


O 294 


2 2IO 


O 399 


2 I96 


I 17 


2 182 


I 60 


I 29O 


O 182 



The thin bran named in this table is not obtained in ordinary 
flour mills ; it forms the outermost coating of the grain, and may 
be removed by damping and then peeling the grain. 

It may be useful to give a more complete analysis of fine flour 
as obtained from white soft wheat : — 

Case 37. 



Water - 
Fibrin, &c. - 
Starch, &c. - 
Fat 

Cellulose 
Mineral matter 



100 parts. 


In 1 lb. 




oz. gr. 


I3'0 


2 35 


10-5 


I 297 


743 


. II 388 


o-8 


O 57 


07 


.'O 49 


07 


O 49 



64 BRAN. 

One pound of good wheaten flour, when digested and oxidized 
in the body, might liberate force equal to 2,283 tons raised 1 ft. 
high. The greatest amount of external work which it could 
enable a man to perform is 47 7 tons raised 1 ft. high. 

For one part of flesh-formers in fine wheaten flour there are 
7*^ parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of wheaten flour cannot produce more than about 
ifi oz. of the dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

Instead of giving analyses of all the other mill-products 
before named, we will cite one additional analysis only, that of a 
rather coarse bran : — 

Case 37. In ioo parts. In i lb. 

oz. gr. 

Water ------- 14 ... 2 105 

Fibrin, &c. - - - - - - 15 ... 2 175 

Starch, &c. - - - - - ... - 44 ... 7 17 

Fat - - 4 ... o 280 

Lignose and cellulose - - - - 17 ... 2 316 

Mineral matter 6 ... o 422 

In comparing these numbers with those before given as repre- 
senting the composition of fine flour, it will be seen that bran 
not only contains more fibrin and mineral matter than fine flour, 
but also more fat. The fibrous matter, which is indigestible, 
forms }4 of the bran, but not T fo of the fine flour. 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in bran there are not quite 4 parts 
of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of wheaten bran contains flesh-formers equal to 
rather more than 2^3 oz. of the dry nitrogenous substance of 
muscle or flesh. 

In bran there is a remarkable substance called cerealin, which 
acts like a ferment in causing the change and solution of other 
substances, and it may therefore aid in the processes of digestion 
when brown or whole-meal bread is eaten. 

There are many preparations of wheat which we can do little 
more than mention. Such are semolina and semola, which are 



WHEATEN BREAD. 65 

made in grinding wheat (and other grains also, as those of the 
oat). They consist of small fragments of the interior of the 
grain, and are usually prepared from hard wheat rich in flesh- 
formers. It is from the same kinds of wheat that the macaroni, 
vermicelli, and the infinite variety of Italian pastes are prepared. 
Wheat groats, or grits, are distinguished from semola by the 
presence of the husk of the grain in large or small proportion. 

Bread. 
French, Pain. German, Brod. Italian, Pa?ie. 

Of all the cereals wheat yields the best bread. This is due 
mainly to the peculiar character of the nitrogenous matter of 
wheat. This nitrogenous matter, of which, the main constituent 
is a kind of fibrin, may be obtained in a separate form by making 
a little flour into a thick dough with water, and then washing the 
starch out of the mass by means of a stream of water. A grayish- 
yellow, tough, and elastic mass is left, which can be drawn out into 
threads. This substance is often called gluten ; it is a mixture, but 
its chief ingredient is the albuminoid, or flesh-forming matter, 
fibrin. It confers upon a prepared mixture of flour and water, or 
dough, the property of yielding a sponge, which becomes firm, or 
sets, at the heat of the baking-oven. The bubbles which make 
the dough light are produced in different ways, but they are 
always filled at first with carbonic acid gas. The bubbles be- 
come larger as the dough begins to get hot in the oven, and 
finally they are fixed in shape and size by a higher degree of 
heat. 

There are three ways of turning dough into bread. In the 
first of these the carbonic acid gas necessary to produce the 
spongy texture is made within the dough by means of leaven, or 
yeast. Leaven is not much used in this country — its action is 
similar to that of yeast. Leaven consists of flour and water — 
sometimes mixed with salt and boiled potatoes — it is kept till it 

F 



66 WHEATEN BREAD. 

has begun to suffer change. This change commences in the fibrin, 
which produces a substance — a kind of ferment — which turns some 
of the starch of the flour into glucose, and then this into alcohol 
and carbonic acid gas. According to some authorities, it is the 
small quantity of glucose previously existing in the flour which 
is thus fermented. The action of beer yeast is the same. Yeast, 
whether fresh or partially dried, has the power of decomposing 
a warm solution of glucose or maltose — the sugars of fruits and 
malt. In its growth, the yeast plant, mixed with the dough, 
breaks up these sugars, changing them into carbonic acid gas and 
alcohol. The alcohol escapes during baking, and so does most 
of the carbonic acid gas ; but the latter has made innumerable 
bubbles in the dough previous to its escape, and thus the bread 
has been vesiculated. Leaven, assisted by a little yeast, is much 
used abroad, as in Paris, for making bread. Immense and 
increasing quantities of German, or dried yeast — carefully pre- 
pared by washing, &c. — are now imported into England. From 
a sack of flour weighing 4801b. about 95 quartern or 4-lb. 
loaves may be obtained. These will lose weight, much water 
being given off from the bread after it has left the oven till it is 
cold — but the loss continues for long, the 4-lb. loaf at last being 
reduced to little more than 3 lb. New bread contains from 
38 to 43 per cent, of water, sometimes even 45 per cent, and 
usually at least 40 per cent. The flesh-formers in white bread 
amount to 7 or 8 per cent. ; the starch, gum, and sugar, to 48 
or 50 per cent. ; and the mineral matter (which includes the 
common salt added to the dough) to 1^ percent. The chief 
chemical difference between bread and the flour from which it 
has been made consists in the presence of much dextrin in the 
bread, along with some soluble starch. The crust contains more 
dextrin than the crumb. 

But it is easy to make bread without yeast or leaven, the 
carbonic acid gas necessary being set free within the'dough by 
means of the chemical reaction between a strong acid and a 



BREAD-MAKING. 67 

carbonate. This process yields unfermented^ or chemical bread ; 
and one plan of this kind, which was patented by Dr. Whiting in 
1837, has been much used. The materials used to produce the 
carbonic acid gas are bicarbonate of soda and hydrochloric acid 
(spirits of salt). But it is necessary to make sure that these 
materials are free from injurious impurities ; and it must also be 
remarked that the quantity of salt which is produced by the 
union of the bicarbonate of soda and the hydrochloric acid is 
excessive. It is true, however, that with care in the preparation 
of the dough less soda and acid will suffice, so that we may pro- 
duce a light and agreeable loaf with about half the quantities of 
these substances usually recommended. Unfermented bread 
may also be made with sesqui-carbonate of ammonia without 
any acid, this compound expanding or raising the " sponge " and 
then escaping at the heat of the oven. 

Baking powders contain tartaric acid and carbonate of soda, 
and the bread made with them differs only from the unfermented 
bread of Dr. Whiting in the presence of tartrate of soda — an 
aperient salt — instead of common salt. Similar powders, coloured 
yellow with turmeric, are sold under the name of egg powders. 
It is scarcely necessary to say that they have nothing in common 
with eggs save colour. 

There is another process of making bread without leaven or 
yeast, or even any saline matter. It is known as Dr. Dauglish's 
process, the bread produced being called " aerated." Here the 
requisite carbonic acid gas is prepared beforehand in a condition 
of perfect purity, and in a separate vessel. This gas is then 
forced into water, which becomes highly charged with it, like 
soda-water. The flour is mixed, with this aerated, or carbonated 
water in a strong iron vessel, under pressure. The dough thus 
formed rises when introduced into the oven, for the gas with 
which it has been charged expands and escapes on being with- 
drawn from the pressure of the mixing vessel, and still more on 
being heated. Aerated bread differs much in taste from ordinary 

f 2 



6S BROWN BREAD. 

fermented bread. Perhaps it is less generally liked, but it 
certainly preserves, in a remarkable degree, the odour and 
flavour of the original pure wh eaten flour from which it was 
made. 

Before leaving this extremely important subject of bread, a 
few words on brown bread may not be out of place. Brown 
bread, as usually made and sold by bakers, is merely ordinary 
white bread, containing a dash of pollard or fine bran. Now, 
this is not a satisfactory mixture, for the more valuable middlings, 
sharps, and fine pollard should not be excluded. Indeed, whole 
wh eaten meal is now specially prepared by grinding up these 
products again and adding them to the flour, and the mixture is 
used for the manufacture of a true brown bread, preserving all 
the valuable constituents of the grain in due proportion. But it 
must not be thought that whole-meal bread or any other kind of 
brown bread does actually furnish more nutriment than white 
bread. It may be, and often is, richer in nutrients, but the 
presence of numerous rough, branny fragments so stimulates the 
action of the intestines^ that the material is hurried along the 
digestive tract without that complete digestion and absorption of 
its nutritive matters which white bread undergoes. Thus bread 
from flour from which all coarse particles have been excluded is 
preferred, not unreasonably, by men who have hard bodily labour 
to perform. But there are, on the other hand, many persons to 
whom whole-meal bread and biscuits are exceedingly useful in 
aiding the action of the bowels. Any deficiencies in the amount 
of phosphates, &c, in white bread, are made up by the use of 
eggs, milk, and other foods of animal origin. 

According to Dr. Frankland's experiments, i lb. of bread- 
crumb, if digested and oxidized in the human body, might liberate 
force equal to 1,333 tons raised 1 ft. high. The greatest amount 
of external work which it could enable a man to perform is 267 
tons raised 1 ft. high. 

Case 38. The following recipes give some notion of the 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF BREAD. 69 

quantities of the several materials required to make a 2 -lb. loaf, 
by the different processes just described : — 

I. — Ordinary or Fermented Bread. 

lb. oz. 

Flour 1 8)4 

Water, about 010 

Yeast 00^ 

Potatoes ------- o 1% 

Salt o oyi 

It may be noted that more water than the above is often 
employed : that the small quantity of boiled potatoes here named, 
though generally thought to improve the bread, is not necessary ; 
and that % oz. of salt is not an unusual proportion in the 2-lb. 
loaf. 

II. — Aerated or Dr. Dauglish's Bread. 

lb. oz. 

Flour - 1 l l / 2 

Carbonated water - - - - - - 010 

Salt o o}{ 

III. — Unfermented Bread. 

lb. oz. gr. 

Flour 180 

Water o 10 o 

Bicarbonate of soda 00 220 

Hydrochloric acid 00 246 

IV. — Whole-Meal Bread. 

lb. oz. 
Whole wheaten meal 1 9 

W T ater 010 

Yeast -------- o 0% 

Salt o 0% 

There are several substances found in bread, or, rather, in the 
bread of some bakeries, which have no business there. They 
are chiefly introduced to whiten the loaf, to enable damaged or 
inferior flour to be used, or to cause the bread to retain more 
water than usual. Alum and sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) are 
employed for the former purposes, boiled rice and potatoes for 
the latter. The two chemical substances, alum and sulphate of 



yo ADULTERATION OF BREAD. 

copper, are dangerous adulterants when added to a material in 
daily use like bread. A little pure lime-water answers the same 
purposes, and there is no reason to think it can be productive of 
the least harm. The case of boiled rice and potatoes is less 
serious. These materials are, of course, perfectly wholesome in 
themselves, indeed the latter material is often advantageously 
employed in making bread at home, on the small scale ; but when 
these substances are used in order that ioo loaves may be got 
from a quantity of flour which should yield no more than 95, and 
when we know that this difference is caused by the larger quantity 
of water in the bread prepared, with the addition of potatoes or 
rice, then these additions are justly described as adulterations. 

From what we have just said, it must not be assumed that the 
adulterants found in bread are the additions, in all cases, of the 
baker. Millers are known to employ several substances for the 
purpose of whitening, or otherwise improving the flour, or for 
fraudulently increasing its weight. Rice meal, bean meal, corn- 
flour, or Rivett wheat flour, and the flour of Dari (a sort of millet), 
have been frequently detected in the products of the flour mill. 
But these materials, though cheaper than wheaten flour, cannot 
be said to be such serious adulterations as those of a mineral 
character. Chalk, dolomitic limestone, powdered gypsum, china 
clay, and even heavy spar or barytes have been employed for this 
purpose. All - of these mineral matters are useless, having no 
value as food ; some are even injurious. Fortunately they can all 
be easily detected by chemical tests, while the adulterants named 
before (rice, &c), require very careful examination in a good 
microscope. The mere fact that a sample of wheaten flour left, 
on being burnt, more than its proper proportion of ash would 
point to adulteration with some of the earthy matters which have 
just been named. 

Case 38. In times of scarcity, all sorts of vegetable matters 
have been mixed with wheaten flour and meal in order to eke out 
a limited supply of these nutritious matters. During the siege of 



BISCUITS. 71 

Paris a coarse bread was made containing but little wheat, the 
main ingredients being potatoes and beans, with oats, rice, and 
rye, together with a good deal of fibrous vegetable matter in the 
shape of chaff and straw. In Norway and Sweden the sawdust of 
non-resinous woods, like beech and birch, is boiled in water, 
baked, and then mixed with flour to form the material for bread. 
And in England, during the seventeenth century, a very tolerable 
bread was made from a mixture of the pulp of boiled turnips with 
wheaten flour. 

Biscuits. 

Case 39. Biscuits are usually distinguished from bread by two 
differences : they are not vesiculated, and they are baked until 
they contain scarcely any water, sometimes not even 5 per cent. 
There are, of course, some exceptions to this rule, especially in the 
case of fancy biscuits. The word u biscuit " means twice cooked 
or baked, and is thus not applicable to the generality of biscuits 
now made. There are, however, some biscuits which have really 
been twice in the oven ; such are rusks, which are made from flour, 
milk, butter, and sugar, first lightly baked as a kind of bread, then 
cut into slices and again put into a sharp oven, so as to scorch 
both sides. Afterwards they are thoroughly dried by a lower 
degree of heat continued for some hours. 

Most kinds of biscuits consist of a basis of flour and water, 
with slight additions of butter, sugar, and flavouring sub- 
stances. Unleavened, or Passover cakes, consist of flour and 
water alone. Diet, digestive, and bran biscuits contain or consist 
of bran. Abernethy biscuits contain caraway seeds. Cracknels 
are glazed with white of egg. Macaroons and ratafias are flavoured 
with sweet and bitter almonds. Ginger, lemon, and orange-peel, 
and many other flavourers and spices, are used as ingredients in 
fancy biscuits and cakes. All plain biscuits may be considered 
as more nutritious than bread, in the proportion of 5 to 3. They 



72 OATS. 

are most digestible when not very dense, and when they have 
been browned by baking, so as to turn much of their starch into 
dextrin. 

Oats. 

French, Avoine. German, Hafer. Italian, Avena. 
(Avena sativa.) 

The oat belongs to the same order as the wheat — that of the 
grasses or graminacese. The native country of the plant from 
which our cultivated varieties are derived is unknown. The oat 
is hardier than wheat, and ripens in higher latitudes. In Great 
Britain there were, in the year 1875, no less than 2,664,000 acres 
devoted to this crop, as against 3,342,481 under wheat. Though 
chiefly grown as food for horses, there are two forms in which it 
is largely used for human food — these are oat-cake and oatmeal- 
porridge. As the husk adheres to the oat grain firmly, it is 
necessary to dry it in a kiln, in order to loosen it. Afterwards 
the kiln-dried oats are submitted to a process of milling, which 
removes the husk, and leaves the nutritive part of the grain, as 
groats or grits, which are then ground and constitute oat??ieal. 
Oatmeal varies in composition a good deal, especially as regards 
the proportions of water, fat, and fibrin, or flesh-forming matter. 
When quite fresh, and before exposure to the air, its water does 
not exceed 5 per cent, and may be less ; the fat or oil amounts to 
7, and in the best samples to 10 per cent. ; while the fibrin may 
be 14 to 17 or 18 per cent. Scotch oatmeal is the best and 
richest ; it forms as porridge or oatcake a very nourishing though 
somewhat laxative food. It is much richer in flesh-formers than 
ordinary wheaten flour. Oat flour cannot alone be made into 
bread. As oats in the husks are not used as human food, we need 
not give the complete analysis of the whole oat grain, which differs 
from that of oatmeal, mainly in containing more cellulose and 



In 


lib. 


oz. 


gr. 


O 


35° 


2 


252 


IO 


352 


I 


269 


O 


259 


o 


147 



OATMEAL. 73 

lignose. * A careful analysis of a fresh sample of Scotch oatmeal 
showed the following results : — 

Composition of Oatmeal. 



Case 42. In 100 parts. 

Water - 5'° 

Fibrin, &c. - - -. - - i6'i 

Starch, &c. - - - - - - 63*0 

Fat - io'i 

Cellulose and lignose - - - - 37 

Mineral matter 2"i 



According to Frankland, i lb. of oatmeal, when digested 
and oxidized in the body, might liberate force equal to 2,439 tons 
raised 1 ft. high. The greatest amount of external work which it 
could enable a man to perform is 488 tons raised 1 ft. high. It 
is, however, probable that the sample which was used in this 
experimental trial was decidedly inferior to fine Scotch oatmeal, 
the composition of which is given above. 

For one part of flesh-formers in Scotch oatmeal, there are 
5^3 parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch, but the actual quan- 
tities of both flesh-formers and heat-givers are unusually large. 

One pound of oatmeal cannot produce more than about 
2% oz. of the dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

One hundred pounds of oats (weighing 45^ lb. the bushel) 
commonly yield the following proportion of oatmeal, &c. : — 



From 100 lb. of oats. 
Oatmeal ----- 60 lb. 

Husks 26 ,, 

Water 12 ,, 

Loss ------ 2,, 



* Samples of oats in the straw, and of different varieties of the grain, may 
be seen in Cases 30, 31, and 32. 



74 COMPOSITION OF BARLEY. 

Barley. 

French, Orge. German, Gerste. Italian, Orzo. 
{Hbrdeum vulgar e.) 

Case 42.* Barley belongs to the natural order of the grasses. 
The plant was originally a native of western temperate Asia. It 
is hardier than wheat or oats, and may be grown in high northern 
latitudes. It is not extensively cultivated in America ; in Great 
Britain, 2,509,701 acres were devoted to this crop in the year 1875. 
Barley was largely used in ancient times as human food. Most 
of that grown in England is now converted into malt for making 
beer. Some is ground into meal and used for feeding pigs ; while 
much is milled, yielding pot or Scotch barley and pearl barley. 
The whole grain is subjected to a rasping or paring process, by 
which the fibrous coats of the grain are more or less completely 
removed. Pot barley is the coarsest product, and retains some- 
thing of the original shape of the grain. Of this product about 
63 lb. are obtained from 100 lb. of barley, but only half this 
amount of the finest pearl. Patent barley is pearl barley ground 
into flour. Pot and pearl barley are used in soups, puddings, &c. 
It will be seen from the annexed analysis that pearl barley is 
inferior to wheaten flour in flesh-formers. 

Composition of Common Pearl Barley. 

In 100 parts. In i lb. 

Water 14-6 

Fibrin, &c. - - - - - - 6*2 

Starch, &c. - - - - - - ' 76*0 

Fat - - - - - - i'3 

Cellulose o*8 

Mineral matter - - - - i*i 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in pearl barley there are no less 
than 12^ parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

* In Cases 33 and 34 samples of barley are shown. 



oz. 


gr- 


2 


147 


O 


434 


12 


70 


O 


91 


3 


56 


O 


77 



COMPOSITION OF RYE, 75 

One pound of pearl barley cannot produce more than 1 oz. of 
the dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

Barley flour does not yield a light bread, but it may be used 
for bread-making when mixed with wheaten flour. 

Rye. 

French, Seigle. German, Roggen. Italian, Segale. 
(Secale cerea/e.) 

Case 42. Rye, like wheat, oats, and barley, belongs to the 
grasses. It was formerly extensively grown in Great Britain, and is 
still cultivated to some extent, especially in the eastern counties of 
England ; but in most parts of this country rye is used as green 
fodder only. The grain of rye is employed mainly for malting 
purposes, but its flour may be made into bread. Rye bread is 
dark-coloured, heavy, and sourish, but it keeps moist for a long 
time. It is a favourite food in many parts of Northern Europe, 
and is known as black bread. A palatable bread may be made 
from a mixture of 2 parts of wheaten flour and 1 part of rye 
flour. 

Rye grain is peculiarly liable to the attacks of a fungus, which 
produces the ergot of rye. The w r hole substance of the grain is 
altered and blackened, while a remarkable compound called 
ergotine is produced. This substance renders ergoted grain 
unwholesome, and sometimes even dangerous. 

The following table shows the 

Composition of Rye Flour. 

In 100 parts. 

Water 13-0 

Fibrin, &c. 10*5 — 

Starch, &c. - - - - - 71 *o 

Fat iS 

Cellulose ------ 2*3 

Mineral matter 1 '6 



In 


lib. 


oz. 


gr- 


2 


35 


I 


298 


II 


157 


O 


66 


O 


161 


O 


112 



7 6 RICE. 

For i part of flesh-formers in rye flour there are 6% parts of 
heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of rye flour cannot produce more than i y s oz. 
of the dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 



Rice. 

French, Rtz. German, Rets. Italian, Riso. 
{Oryza sativa.) 

Cases 43 and 44 Ri ce is a grass, a native of India. It is extensively 
grown in India, China, and the East generally ; also in Carolina 
and Central America. It is likewise cultivated with success in the 
southern parts of Europe. Rice requires a high temperature and 
abundance of water to bring it to perfection ; indeed the fields in 
which the crop is grown are irrigated. Many varieties of rice 
are cultivated, but they do not differ materially, as far as the com- 
position of the grain is concerned. Rice is more largely grown 
and consumed as human food than any other cereal. It is said 
to be the main food of one-third of the human race. Alone, 
however, it is not a perfect food, being deficient in flesh-formers 
and mineral matters. 

Rice is imported into this country from Carolina, Patna, 
Bengal, Arracan. When enclosed in the husk rice is known as 
fiaddy. By careful milling this husk is removed, and the pearled 
grain thus cleaned is what is generally known as rice. The rice 
husk, or shude, is harsh and fibrous in texture, and contains much 
lignose and silica. It is largely used in adulterating many articles 
of human and cattle food. Rice is used both in the form of the 
cleaned rice of the shops and ground into flour. Much starch 
is extracted from rice. Rice starch is readily changed into a kind 
of sugar, accompanied by some dextrin, when it is warmed with 
very weak sulphuric acid. 



RICE. 



77 



Composition of Cleaned Rice. 



Water - 
Fibrin, &c. - 
Starch, &c. - 
Fat 

Cellulose 
Mineral matter 



ioo parts. 


In 1 lb. 




oz. gr. 


I4"6 


2 I47 


7 '5 


.. I 87 


76-0 


12 70 


o'5 


35 


0-9 


63 


o\5 


35 



For i part of flesh-formers in rice there are more than 10 parts 
of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of rice cannot produce more than i7 s oz. of the 
dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

According to Frankland, 1 lb. of rice, when digested and 
oxidized in the body, might liberate force equal to 2,330 tons 
raised 1 ft. The greatest amount of external work which 
it could enable a man to perform is 466 tons raised 1 ft. 
high. 

Rice is most usefully employed as food when it is consumed 
along with substances rich in nitrogenous or flesh-forming 
matters. Thus it may be used with meat, eggs, and any kind 
of pulse, as peas or beans. Rice should not be boiled, but 
merely steamed till tender, for it yields to boiling water a con- 
siderable part of its nitrogenous and mineral constituents — those 
compounds, in fact, in which it was already deficient. But this 
objection to boiling rice does not, of course, apply to its use in 
soups. Rice cannot be substituted for green vegetables for any 
length of time without an unhealthy condition of the body, and 
..sometimes scurvy, being the result* 



* Samples of rice are shown in Case 44 from Central Africa, Carolina, 
Cochin China, Damietta, Egypt, Greece, India, Java, Madagascar, Peru, 
Portugal, Russia, Spain, and Turkey ; also a specimen grown in the Royal 
Botanic Gardens, Kew. 



73 COMPOSITION OF MAIZE. 

Maize, or Indian Corn. 

French, Bl'e de Turquie. German, Mais. Italian, Granturco, 
(Zea Mays.) 

Case 43 .* Maize belongs to the grasses. It is a native American 
plant, but was soon introduced into the Old World. It is now largely- 
grown in Southern Europe, North Africa, and North America. 
It is the corn of the United States, where numerous preparations 
of the grain are in use. The whole ear is spoken of as a cob ; 
the pearled grains are called samp. Broken or split maize is 
known as hominy, while grains which have been heated or roasted 
so as to burst them are designated by the term pop-corn. Ground 
maize forms, when boiled, a very common and favourite food in 
the United States, being called mush. In Italy it goes under 
the name of polenta, while the more finely prepared meal is 
termed polentina. Maize will grow and often ripen its cobs in 
England, but it cannot be relied on as a field crop. Several 
varieties, and possibly more than one species, of maize are 
in cultivation. These differ much in the size, shape, and colour 
of the grain, and in other particulars as well 3 but in their com- 
position there is not much variation — ■ 



Composition of Maizi 



Water - - 14*5 

Fibrin, &c. -,.--- 90 

Starch, &c. - 64-5 

Fat - - - - - - 5-0 

Cellulose and lignose - - - - 5 "o 

Mineral matter ■• - - - 2*0 



In 100 parts. In i lb. 

oz. gr. 

2 140 

I 193 

IO 140 

o 35o 

o 35o 

o 140 



* Numerous varieties of maize, including the whole ear or cob, the 
separated grain, and many preparations therefrom, are shown in Case 35. 
The following is a list of the countries furnishing most of these specimens : 
British Guiana, Egypt, France, Greece, New South Wales, Peru, Portugal, 
Queensland, Russia, Senegal, Spain, United States, Venezuela. Some 
specimens of maize grown near London are also shown in this Case. 



MILLET. 79 

For i part of flesh-formers in maize there are Sj4 parts of 
heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of maize cannot produce quite 1% oz. of the dry 
nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

Maize was not consumed to any great extent in the British 
Isles till the year of the potato famine, 1846, when considerable 
quantities of the grain and meal were imported. Since then 
large and increasing quantities of maize reach England, to be 
used, not only as human food, but for horse keep. Many pre- 
parations of maize are now popular articles of food under the 
names of corn-flour, oswego, maizena, cornena, &c. It must be 
distinctly understood that these products are not flour, but nearly 
pure starch, and that they contain mere traces of bone-forming 
and flesh-forming materials. When used with milk, however, 
their deficiencies are to some extent supplied, although, even 
then, there must necessarily be an excessive proportion of heat- 
giving to flesh-forming nutrients in the mixture. In 1 lb. of the 
so-called "corn-flour" from maize, we found but 18 grains of 
flesh-formers ; in 1 lb. of the similar preparation known as 
" oswego," 69 grains were present. 

Maize is poorer than wheat in flesh-formers, but richer than 
rice. It contains more fat than wheat, barley, or rice. Mixed 
with wheaten flour, it yields an agreeable bread. It may be 
used for biscuits, puddings, porridge, cakes, &c. 



Millet. 

French, Millet. German, Hirse. Italian, Miglio. 
(Panicum miliaceum, &c.) 

Case 43. Very many different plants belonging to the grasses 
yield the grain known as millet. • The Panicum spectabile of Brazil 
grows seven or eight feet high, while other species on the 



So 



MILLET AND DARL 



Amazon are quite as luxuriant. P. cernuum is the millet of 
Texas ; in India, P. pilosum and P. frumentosum are grown. In 
Central and Southern Europe several other species are cultivated. 

Millet grain is used for human food chiefly in hot countries. 
It may be made into a kind of bread, quite equal, as far as its 
composition goes, to wheaten bread.* 

A sample of one of the millets grown in Europe, the grain of 
Panicum ?niliaceum, gave, when the husk had been removed, the 
following results on analysis : — 



Composition of Millet. 

In ioo parts. 

Water 13*0 

Fibrin, &c. 153 

Starch, &c. - - - - 61 '6 

Fat 5-0 

Cellulose - - - - - - 3*5 

Mineral matter 1 '6 



In ilb. 



oz. 


gr. 


2 


I05 


I 


2S3 


... IO 


231 


O 


315 


O 


280 


O 


98 



For 1 part of flesh-formers in millet there are about 5 parts of 
heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of millet cannot produce more than 1 3/3 oz. of the 
dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

Case 43. Dari or Durra is the grain of certain species of 
sorghum, and is largely consumed as food in some countries. 
It is imported into this country in some quantity, and used for 
feeding cattle, poultry, &c. The grain is white, and larger than 
millet. 



Composition of Dari. 



Water - 
Fibrin, &c. 
Starch, &c. 



In 100 
parts. 
12*2 

8-2 



Fat - 

Cellulose and lignose 



70*6 J Mineral matter 



In 100 
parts. 

4*2 

3'i 
17 



* In Cases 31 and 43 are various samples of millet from Canada, Germany, 
Persia, Portugal, Spain, India, Egypt, Senegal, Tripoli, Bohemia, and Russia. 



BUCKWHEAT. 81 

The grain of many other grasses is used as food. We may 
cite as an instance the Russian preparation known as manna 
kroup, consisting of groats from the grain of the common grass, 
Poa fluitans. 

Buckwheat. 

French, Sarrasin. German, Buchweizen. Italian, Grano Saraceno. 
{Polygonum Fagopyrum.) 

Case 43 . This plant, though not a grass, may be fitly con- 
sidered here. It is largely grown in temperate countries for its 
starchy seeds, which resemble the grain of the grasses in com- 
position. Buckwheat is probably a native of Western Asia or 
Russia : it belongs to the order Polygonacece, which includes the 
rhubarb and the dock. 

Buckwheat is an annual of quick growth and easy cultivation. 
It is sown in Britain for feeding game and poultry, and is also 
grown for green fodder. 

The seed of buckwheat is enclosed in a husk containing much 
indigestible fibre. When this husk, amounting to about 20 per 
cent., has been removed, the richness of the seed in nutritive 
matters is very considerable. 

The published analyses of buckwheat deprived of its husk 
being very discordant, new analyses have been made with the 
following results : — 



Water - 

Fibrin - 

Starch - 

Fat ... 

Cellulose and lignose 

Mineral matter 



n 100 parts. 


In 1 lb. 




oz. gr. 


I3'4 


.. 2 63 


15-2 


.. 2 189 


6 3 -6 


.. IO 77 


3 '4 


.. O 238 


2*1 


- O I47 


2- 3 


O l6l 



For 1 part of flesh-formers in cleaned buckwheat there are 
about 434 parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

G 



82 PEAS. 

One pound of cleaned buckwheat contains flesh-formers equal 
to rather more than 2^ oz. of the dry nitrogenous substance of 
muscle or flesh. 

§ 2. — Pulse — Peas, Beans, &c. 

There is a marked difference in chemical composition between 
the seeds of leguminous plants on the one hand, and the grain 
of the cereals on the other. This difference mainly consists in 
the far higher proportion of albuminoids, or flesh-formers, in the 
former. In consequence of this difference, the ratio of flesh- 
formers to heat-givers in the seeds now under consideration is 
about 1 to 2^, instead of 1 to 5, as in wheat, or 1 to 10, as in 
rice. This fact suggests the proper mode of using pulse, which 
should generally be eaten with other foods rich in starch, sugar, 
fat, oil, or non-nitrogenous nutrients. Beans and rice, beans and 
bacon, are examples of such mixtures. 

The albuminoid which predominates in pulse is called legumin 
or vegetable casein. It occurs in leguminous plants generally, both 
in their green parts and in their ripe seeds. It appears to be more 
soluble and more easily digested in the unripe fresh seeds than 
after they have become ripe and dry ; but it is usually considered 
a less valuable flesh-former than albumen or fibrin. Its resem- 
blance to the animal casein of milk is so decided, that in some 
parts of China cheeses are made from the seeds of beans and 
peas. The resemblance between different species of pulse is so 
great that we need not describe in detail all the cultivated sorts,* 
but may select as examples the garden pea, the haricot bean, and 

the lentil. 

Peas. 

French, Pois. German, Erbsen. Italian, Piselli. 

(Pisum sativum?) 

Case 46. The cultivated garden pea is probably derived from a 

plant native of countries bordering the Black Sea. It ha^ been long 

* In Cases 31, 32, and 34 are samples of different kinds of beans, peas, 
chick peas, vetches, and lentils, from many countries. 



PEAS. 83 

grown in England, and, like the French bean, is eaten unripe and 
green, as a fresh vegetable, and ripe, in the form of dried peas, 
split peas, and pea meal. Split peas have had the tough envelope 
of the seed removed. 

Unripe or green peas contain a considerable quantity of sugar, 
while the albuminoid matter in them is more easily digested than 
that in the same seeds when quite ripe. Dry, ripe peas, even when 
ground, require long but slow boiling, to render them fit for use ; 
they constitute a valuable food, however, when properly cooked, in 
the form of pease-pudding and pea-soup. In common with other 
leguminous plants, and indeed with all products, animal as well as 
vegetable, which are rich in casein, peas are liable to occasion 
flatulence and colic. Peas and many other legumes contain a 
bitter substance, which predominates in some varieties so greatly 
as to render them unpalatable. This substance may, however, be 
removed in some measure by soaking the seeds or coarse meal in 
water containing a little common washing soda for some time : 
the liquor is then poured away. 

Composition of Peas. 

In ioo parts. In i lb. 

cz gr. 

Water - - I4'3 ••• 2 I26 

Casein, &c. 22-4 ... 3 255 

Starch, &c. - - - - - - 5 I- 3 ••• 8 91 

Fat ------ - 2-5 ... o 175 

Cellulose and lignose - - - - 6 '5 ... 1 17 

Mineral matter ----- 3*0 ... o 210 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in peas, there are only 2 }4 parts of 
heat-givers, reckoned as starch. One pound of peas contains flesh- 
formers equal to 2>% oz. of the dry nitrogenous matter of muscle 
or flesh. 

According to Frankland, 1 lb. of dry peas, when digested and 
oxidized in the body, might liberate force equal to 2,341 tons 
raised 1 ft. high. The greatest amount of external work which it 
could enable a man to perform, is 468 tons raised 1 ft. high. 

G 2 



84 PEA-SOUP. 

One of the most economical and nutritious articles of diet is 
pea-soup. One gallon may be made from — peas, 16 oz. ; meat, 
1 6 oz. • pot barley, i oz. ; onions, i}4 oz. ; salt, i)4 oz. ; sugar, 
i*4 oz. • black pepper, 40 grains ; and water, 4 quarts. The peas 
should be first steeped in 3 pints of the water (cold) for 1 2 hours ; 
the meat should be gently simmered in 5 pints of the water for 
3 hours. The peas should then be put in a bag and boiled with 
the meat for 1 hour. The contents of the bag should then be 
pressed into the liquor, the skins which remain in the bag being- 
removed. The salt, pepper, onions, and barley should now be 
put in, and the whole boiled for 1 hour, water being added, from 
time to time, to make up the gallon. Water in which bones, 
fresh meat, or such vegetables as carrots and parsnips have been 
boiled, may be substituted for the whole or part of the fresh water 
used, and the resulting soup will be still more nutritious. But 
even the best soups cannot be regarded as complete substitutes 
for the more solid foods — bread, cheese, potatoes, and meat. 

One pint of this soup will contain something like the following 
quantities of — 

Case 47. oz. gr. 

Water - 17 o 

Casein, &c. o 270 

Starch, &c. -- 1 o 

Sugar - 056 

Fat -..__--_- o 257 

Gelatin' - . • ... - . . . o 147 

Mineral matter - -' - - - - o 103 

The field pea is Pi'sum arvense, and is generally thought to be 
the origin of all our cultivated varieties, although these are now 
grouped under the generic name of P. sativum. But there is a 
very distinct kind of pea, known as the chick pea, which belongs 
to a different genus — it is the Cicer arietinum. Chick peas are 
eaten in Spain, and very extensively also in the East, being 
generally parched or lightly roasted.* 

* Chick peas from Moldavia, Turkey, Portugal, Spain, and India are 
shown in Case 31. 



BEANS. 85 

Haricot and French Beans. 

French, Haricots. German, Wdlschen Bohnen. Italian, Fagiuoli. 
(Phaseolus vulgaris.) 
Case 46. The French bean, the kidney bean, and the numerous 
varieties of haricots, are all derived from a plant which was in- 
troduced from India. This vegetable was and is largely grown in 
Italy and France, where its pods are usually allowed to ripen and 
the seeds to dry. In this country the pods are gathered when 
green and unripe, and eaten as a fresh vegetable ; this is the case, 
also, to some extent, on the Continent, where the green pods are 
preserved in several ways so as to be available throughout the 
year. The dried seeds of this plant, known as haricot beans, when 
carefully and thoroughly cooked, are worthy of more extended 
use in England ; they are universally appreciated in France. 
They should be eaten with starchy foods, like rice, or with bacon. 

Composition of Haricot Beans. 

In 100 parts. In 1 lb. 

oz. gr. 

Water ------- 14-0 ... 2 105 

Casein, &c. ----- 23*0 ... 3 297 

Starch, &c. - - - - - - 52-3 ... 8 161 

Fat - - 2-3 ... o 161 

Cellulose and lignose - - - - 5 "5 ... o 385 

Mineral matter - - - - - 2 -9 ... o 203 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in haricot beans there are only 2 y£ 
parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of haricot beans might produce nearly 3^ oz. of 
the dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

The scarlet-runner (Phaseolus multiflorus) closely resembles 
the French bean, and is used green in the same way. It is 
believed to be a native of Mexico. The ripe beans are not 
wholesome. 

The broad or Windsor bean is, when young, an agreeable and 
wholesome food. It is the seed of a distinct plant derived from 
the field bean, or Faba vulgaris. 



86 COMPOSITION OF LENTILS. 

Lentils. 

French, Lcntilks. German, Linsen. Italian, Lend. 
(Ervum lens.) 

Case 4 6. This leguminous plant is extensively grown for human 
food in the southern parts of Europe. Numerous varieties exist, 
but they do not differ much in composition and nutritive value. 
This plant was cultivated by the Hebrews and other ancient 
nations. It is thought that the red pottage of Esau was made 
from the well-known red variety of lentil. 

Besides a bitter substance there is a good deal of useless 
fibrous material in the covering of lentil seeds. When this 
covering is removed the meal which lentils yield is of great rich- 
ness. It generally contains more casein than either peas or 
beans, but rather less than lupines. The preparations so much 
advertised under the names of " Revalenta," " Ervalenta," &c, 
contain lentil-meal, generally mixed with some barley or other 
flour, and common salt. They are sold at many times the value 
of the meals of which they are composed. 

Composition of Lentils. 

In 100 parts. In 1 lb. 

oz. gr. 



Water 14-5 

Casein, &c - - - - - - 24*0 

Starch, &c. - - - - - 49*0 

Fat - - - - - - 2-6 

Cellulose and lignose - - - - 6'g 



2 140 

3 367 
7 408 

182 

1 45 



Mineral matter ----- 3-0 ... o 210 

For i part of flesh-formers in lentils there are about 2% parts 
of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of lentils contains flesh-formers equal to 3^ oz. 
of the dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh.* ' 



* Many samples of lentils, from Algeria, Egypt, France, Portugal, 
Reunion, Spain, Tripoli, and Turkey, are shown in Case 34. 



ROOTS AND TUBERS. 87 

Ground or Pea Nuts. 
{Arachis hyfogaa.) 

Case 46. The pods of this most curious leguminous plant are 
ripened below the soil. The plant is probably of American origin, 
but is grown in many hot countries, and is widely cultivated 
along the West Coast of Africa. It flourishes in a rich soil, and 
may grow to 2 feet in height. The Arachis somewhat resembles 
a large kind of clover in appearance ; it has small bright yellow 
pea-like flowers, borne on long stalks; these, after flowering, 
curl down and force the immature pod into the soil. 

The seeds of the ground nut when green and unripe are 
roasted, and have a very pleasant taste. When ripe they are 
extremely oily, and require an admixture of starchy matter. 

Composition of Ground Nuts (shelled). 

In 100 parts. In i lb. 

oz. gr. 

Water - - - - -- - 7*5 ... 1 97 

Casein 24-5 ... 3 403 

Starch, &c. - - - - - - II 7 ... I 382 

Oil 50-0 ... 8 o 

Cellulose and lignose - - - - 4 '5 ... o 315 

Mineral matter 1 "8 ... 126 

Ground nuts, after the greater part of the oil has been ex- 
pressed, yield a cake much used in this country for feeding cattle. 
But in many tropical countries these nuts are consumed as 
human food. 

Many other leguminous seeds and pods are eaten besides 
those named above. Such are, the pigeon pea (Cajanus indicus), 
of India ; a plant nearly allied to the ground nut ( Voandzeia 
subterraiiea) ; and numerous Indian and Chinese species of 
DolicJws* 

§ 3. — Roots and Tubers 

Cases 48, S T, and 52. It will have been noticed that the vegetable 
products (corn and pulse) already considered contain but a 



88 POTATOES. 

moderate portion of water, generally something like 14 per cent, 
or 2 oz. in the pound. But it will presently be seen that all fresh 
and moist vegetables, whether roots, leaves, or fruits, contain 
much more water. Potatoes, indeed, are richer in nutrients than 
many other moist vegetables, but even they contain 75 per cent, 
of water, or 12 oz. in the pound. White turnips, on the other 
hand, contain from 91 to 93 per cent., or nearly 15 oz. in 
the pound. Another point of difference between the drier foods 
already studied, and those to which attention is about to be 
directed, lies in the presence of more considerable proportions of 
albumen amongst the flesh-formers of moist roots and tubers. 
We give the first place to the potato. 



Potatoes. 

French, Pommes de terre. German, Kartoffeln. Italian, Pomi di terra. 

(Solatium tuberosum.') 

The potato belongs to the nightshade order, which includes a 
very large number of poisonous plants. The tubers, which are 
enlargements of the underground stem, form, next to the grain 
of the cereals, our most important vegetable food. The potato 
plant has been found wild in Chili, Peru, and Mexico. It was 
brought to Ireland by Sir John Hawkins, in 1565 ; to England by 
Sir Francis Drake in 1585, and in the following year by Sir W. 
Raleigh. Gerarde figured the plant in his " Herbal," published 
in 1597. But this vegetable did not become popular until 
towards the close of the eighteenth century. 

Many varieties of the cultivated potato exist, but variations 
in chemical composition shown by this tuber depend more upon 
its size and maturity than upon the variety. Since the year 1845 
the potato has been the subject of a disease, known as the 
potato murrain, which causes the. foliage to die off suddenly and 
the tubers to decay. The murrain prevails in damp warm sum- 



POTATOES. 89 

mers, when there is a heavy rainfall in June or July, and when 
the rain falls on many days. Such conditions are favourable to 
the growth of the parasites, mildew, or fungus, which is the 
immediate cause of the disease. Good drainage, with plenty of 
air for the plants, and no excess of decaying matter in the soil, 
are amongst the best means of moderating the attacks of the 
fungus, which generally goes by the name of Peronospora infestans, 
but has been lately described as a Phytophthora. 

Slightly diseased potatoes may be utilised in many ways. If 
cut at once in thin slices or granulated, they may be dried in hot- 
air chambers, and will keep for years. They again absorb water 
when placed in it, and may be cooked in the usual manner. 
The starch, even in badly diseased potatoes, is but little affected, 
and may be obtained from the pulped tubers by washing them on 
a cloth in a stream of water. 

From potatoes many products are obtained. These are made 
from the starch of the tuber, which is a good and cheap substitute 
for arrowroot. This starch, by roasting, becomes dextrin, or 
British gum. By boiling with weak sulphuric acid, potato starch 
is changed into glucose or grape sugar, and this, by fermentation, 
yields alcohol. Large quantities of spirits are made from potato 
starch, and are sold under the name of British brandy. 

The peel or rind of potato tubers contains a poisonous sub- 
stance called solanine. This is destroyed or dissipated when the 
potatoes are boiled or steamed. 

Large quantities of potatoes are now imported into England 
from abroad. 

The. potato being rather deficient in flesh-formers, cannot be 
used as a complete food, but is best employed as an addition to 
pulse, lean meat, or other nitrogenous foods.* 

* Numerous specimens of starch and starchy preparations made from the 
potato are shown in Cases 49 and 50. These include imitation sago, tapioca, 
macaroni, and vermicelli. Glucose, and dextrin from potato starch are also 
shown. The specimens are from Brazil, France, Holland, Prussia, and 
Sweden. 



oz. 


gr. 


12 


O 


O 


161 


2 


2IO 


O 


I4O 


o 


21 


o 


70 


o 


70 



go TURNIPS. 

Composition of Potatoes. 

Csse 49 In 100 parts. In 1 lb. 

Water 75*0 

Fibrin and albumen - - - - 23 

Starch 15 - 4 

Dextrin and pectose - - - - 2 *o 

Fat 0-3 . 

Cellulose I 'O 

Mineral matter - - - ' - 1 "o 

For 1 part cf flesh-formers in potatoes it would appear that 
there are 10 parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. But it is 
doubtful whether the flesh-formers are not much exaggerated in 
the above, as in all published analyses. Recent experiments 
tend to show that the ratio of flesh-formers to heat-givers is nearer 
1 to 20 than 1 to 10. According to Frankland, 1 lb. of potatoes, 
when digested and oxidized in the body, might liberate force 
equal to 618 tons raised 1 ft. high. The greatest amount of 
external work which it would enable a man to perform is 124 tons 
raised 1 ft. 

Turnips. 

French, Navets. German, Weissen Ruben. Italian, Navoni. 
(Brassz'ca rapa.) 

Case 48. The turnip belongs to the Order of the Cross-flowers, 
or Crucifera, so called because of their four petals being arranged as 
a cross. The Swedish turnip, which is rather more nutritious than 
the common turnip, is said to have sprung, not from Brassica rafia, 
but from another plant, B. ca??ipestris, which also gave rise»to rape 
and colza. 

The turnip, like many other plants of the same order, contains 
a pungent essential oil. The root is very watery, and contains 
but little nourishment. Unlike the potato, the turnip contains no 
starch, but, instead, a jelly-like matter, belonging to what is called 
the pectose group. It appears, from recent experiments, that 



CARROTS. 91 

turnips contain no more than one-half per cent, of flesh-formers, 
instead of the 1 per cent, usually assigned to them. 

Composition of White Turnips. 

In 100 parts. In 1 lb. 

oz. gr. 

Water 9 2 '8 ••• 14 Z7 l 

Albumen 0-5 ... o 35 

Pectose 4-0 ... o 210 

Fat ------ o-i ... 07 

Cellulose and lignose - I '8 ... o 126 

Mineral matter - - - - oS ... o 56 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in turnips there are 8 parts of 
heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

Carrots. 

French, Carottes. German, Mohren. Italian, Carotte. 
{Daucus carota.) 

Case 48. The wild carrot grows abundantly on our southern 
coasts. It belongs to the Umbellifer Order, which includes many 
edible plants, as celery, parsnip, and parsley ; and many poisonous 
ones, as hemlock. The wild carrot, which is of pungent odour and 
disagreeable taste, has become much milder and more succulent 
by cultivation. The cultivated plant is said to have been intro- 
duced into England during the reign of Elizabeth. 

Carrots, unlike parsnips, contain no starch. They are more 
watery than parsnips of the same size, but they are more generally 
liked. The carrot is grown in all the quarters of the globe. 

Well-grown carrots (weighing about 8 oz.) contain — 



Water - 

Albumen 

Sugar - - . 

Gum and pectose - 

Fat 

Cellulose and lignose 

Mineral matter 



In 100 parts. 


In 1 lb. 




oz. gr. 


89-0 


14 105 


0-5 


35 


4'5 


315 


o\5 


35 


0"2 


14 


4'3 


301 


I'O 


70 



92 PARSNIPS. 

For i part of flesh-formers in carrots there are 10 of heat- 
givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of carrots cannot produce more than y 2 oz. of the 
dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

According to Frankland, i lb. of carrots, when digested and 
oxidized in the body, might set free a force equal to 322 tons 
raised 1 ft. high. The greatest amount of external work which 
it could enable a man to perform, is 64 tons raised 1 ft. high. 

Parsnips. 

French, Pandis. German, Pastinaketi. Italian, Pastinache. 
{Pastinaca sativa.) 

Case 48. The garden parsnip is a cultivated variety of the 
wild parsnip, a native umbelliferous plant, like the carrot. The 
cultivated variety has been grown since Roman times. 

The parsnip contains less water than the carrot. There is a 
good deal of starch, with some sugar, present in this root. 

The parsnip is often eaten with salt fish and salt beef, but its 
peculiar taste and texture are disliked by many persons. 

Both spirits and beer are occasionally prepared from parsnips. 

The chief constituents of parsnips are shown in accordance 
with the following analysis : — 

In 100 parts. In i lb. 

, . oz. gr. 

Water - - - - - - 81 *o ... 12 420 

Albumen - - - - - .1*2 ... o 84 

Sugar ------ 3*0 ... o 210 

Starch 3*5 ... o 245 

Pectose and dextrin - - - 2 '2 ... o 154 

Fat - - , - - - - 1 -5 ... o 105 

Cellulose and lignose - - 5 '6 ... o 392 

Mineral matter - - - - I *o ... o 70 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in parsnips there are. 10 parts of 
heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of parsnips cannot produce quite }& oz. of the 
dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or- flesh. 



JERUSALEM ARTICHOKES. 93 

Beet Root. 

French, Betteraves. German, rothen Ruben. Italian, Barbabietole. 
{Beta vulgaris.) 

Case 51. The sea-beet (B. maritima), common on our southern 
shores, is thought to be the origin of the garden-beet, the sugar- 
beet, and the field-beet or mangold-wurzel. The red garden-beet 
has been long grown in England. Its root, which is of a rich red 
colour, is boiled, and then sliced and eaten in salads or alone. 
The plant belongs to the Goose-foot Order ( Chenopodiacece). 

The garden-beet contains nearly as much sugar as the best 
sugar-beet, which is so largely grown for making sugar in France, 
Belgium, Germany, &c* 

The quantity of flesh- formers in beet-root is but one-third of 
the amount usually assigned to this food, the greater part of the 
nitrogen present existing as nitrates, &c. 

Roots of garden-beet contain— 



100 parts. 


In 


lib. 




oz. 


gr. 


82-2 


13 


67 


0'4 


O 


28 


IO'O 


I 


262 


3'4 


O 


238 


O'l 


O 


7 


3-0 


O 


210 


0-9 


O 


93 



Water 

Albumen 

Sugar ------ 

Pectose 

Fat 

Cellulose and lignose - - - 
Mineral matter 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in beet-root there are more than 
30 parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

Jerusalem Artichokes. 

French, Topinambours. German, Erdapfel. Italian, Tartufoli. 
(Helianthus tuberosus.) 

Case si. Jerusalem artichokes are the tubers of a kind of 
sunflower, which is thought to have been a native of Mexico 

* A series of products obtained in the manufacture of sugar from beet-root 
is shown in Case 10. 



94 ONIONS. 

or Brazil. The plant has been cultivated in England, though 
not largely, since the beginning of the seventeenth century. Jeru- 
salem artichokes may be grown for many successive years on a 
poor, dry soil, and yet give a fair crop. The tubers should be left 
in the ground till required for use. 

There is no starch in the Jerusalem artichoke ; on this ac- 
count, unlike the potato, it does not become floury when boiled. 
Instead of starch, the tubers of- this plant contain a substance 
resembling starch known as inulzn, as well as much sugar. 

The tubers of Jerusalem artichokes contain — ■ 

In 100 parts. In i lb. 

oz. gr. 

Water So'o ... 12 350 

Albumen 2*0 ... o 140 

Sugar, inulin, and pectose - - - 14*4 ... 2 133 

Fat 0-5 ... o 35 

Cellulose - - - - - - .2*0 ... o 140 

Mineral matter I'l ... o 77 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in Jerusalem artichokes there are 
7 parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of Jerusalem artichokes cannot produce more than 
about y$ oz. of the dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

Onions. 

French, Oignons. German,, Zwiebeln. Italian, Cipolle. 
{Allium Cepa.) 

Case 51. The onion is a native of the Levant. It belongs to 
the Lily Order. The large and mild onions imported from Spain 
and Portugal are used as a vegetable food, but this bulb is com- 
monly regarded as a mere flavourer. The strong smell and taste 
of onions, as of the garlic and the leek, are due to a pungent 
volatile oil, rich in sulphur ; but the quantity of this, oil is very 
minute, and is not represented in the analysis given here. 

Onions have a feeding value very near that of white turnips. 

Burnt, or rather scorched, onions are used for colouring soups. 



SWEET POTATO. 95 

Moderate-sized English onions contain on an average the 
lowing proportions of their chief constituents : — 



100 parts. 
91 'O 


In 1 lb. 

oz. gr. 
14 245 


1 '5 

4'8 ... 


O I05 
O 336 


0'2 


O 14 


2'0 


O I40 


o'S 


35 



Water 

Albumen ----- 

Mucilage and pectose - 

Fat 

Cellulose and lignose - 
Mineral matter - 

For 1 part by weight of flesh-formers in fresh onions there 
are about 3K parts of heat-givers. 

One pound of onions cannot produce quite % oz. of the dry 
nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

Sweet Potato. 
Batatas edulis. 

Case 51. This plant belongs to the Convolvulus Order. It is 
probably a native of the warmer parts of the American continent, 
where it has long been extensively grown. It is also cultivated 
in Algeria and in Southern Europe. It has been called the 
Spanish potato. 

The chief difference between the tubers of this plant and 
those of the true potato lies in the presence of sugar in the 
former. 

The tubers of the sweet potato, and those of the different 
kinds of yam, resemble one another somewhat closely as to their 
constituents and feeding value, but they are the produce of 
plants belonging to widely different natural orders. 

The sweet potato contains — 



Water '- - 

Albumen 

Starch - 

Sugar 

Pectose and gum 

Cellulose 

Mineral matter 



In 100 parts. 


In 1 lb. 


74 -o 


oz. gr. 
II 368 


i"5 


O 105 


15-0 


2 175 


3-0 


O 2IO 


2*2 


O I54 


2-8 


O I96 


i*5 


O IO5 



96 YAM 

For i part of flesh-formers in the sweet potato there are 13 
parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of sweet potatoes cannot produce quite j£ oz. 
of the dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

Yam. 

(Dioscorea alata.) 

Case 52. The tubers of several species of twining shrubs be- 
longing to the genus Dioscorea are known as yams. The yam is 
grown in most tropical and some sub-tropical countries. It 
flourishes in Japan, the East and West Indies, the South Sea 
Islands, and is an important article of food. The tubers some- 
times weigh 30 and even 40 lb. 

A kind of yam from China (D. batatas), called in French 
lgname de Chine, is cultivated with some success in France and 
Algeria ; the produce has been known occasionally to exceed 
23 tons of tubers per acre. 

There is much resemblance both as to chemical composition 
and taste between the yam and the common potato. 

Yams contain on an average — 

In 100 parts. 

Water 79'6 

Albumen - - - ' - . - 2*2 

Starch 16 -3 

Fat ------ 0-5 

Cellulose 0*9 

' Mineral matter - - - - I '5 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in the yam there are 7^ parts of 
heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of yams cannot producemore than J^ oz. of the 
dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

A few other roots of less importance, which are sometimes 
used as accompaniments of meat, may be named here. 



In 


1 lb. 


oz. 


gr. 


12 


322 


O 


154 


2 


I96 


O 


35 


O 


63 


O 


105 



CABBAGE. 97 

The parsnip-chervil {Anthriscus bulbosus), a native of France, 
has an edible root like a small carrot. 

Rampion {Campanula rapicnculus) is much grown in France, 
for the sake of the roots, which are boiled till tender. 

Skirret consists of the small tuberous roots of a large, coarse, 
umbelliferous plant {Stum Stsarum) from China. They are boiled 
for use. 

§ 4. — Leaves, Stems, Stalks, and whole Plants. 

The cabbage, with the numerous plants botanically connected 
with it, does not differ widely in nutritive value from the turnip. 
But it should be recollected that important mineral matters, as 
potash salts and phosphates, together with vegetable acids, 
flavouring substances, and a variety of active principles, are 
present in notable quantities in many of the succulent vegetables 
which we are about to consider. The asparagine in asparagus, 
the nitrate of potash in lettuces, and the pungent essential oil in 
watercress are instances in point. It will, therefore, be con- 
venient to group these and many other plants together, not 
because they resemble one another much, but because they all 
form agreeable and wholesome accompaniments to more solid 
and nutritious articles of food. It should be added, that the great 
majority of the plants in this section are distinguished from those 
previously considered by the presence of chlorophyll, the green 
colouring matter of leaves ; its nutritive value is not known, how- 
ever, as yet. 

Cabbage. 

French, Chou. German, Kohl. Italian, Cavolo. 

{Brassica oleracea.) 

Case 52. The wild plant, one of the Cruciferce, from which 

the cabbage sprung, grows upon the southern and western coasts 

of England, Wales, and Ireland. The same native plant is also 

H 



In 


ilb. 


oz. 


gr- 


14 


I05 


O 


IO; 


O 


406 


O 


35 


O 


140 


O 


84 



98 CABBAGE. 

the origin of Scotch kail, Brussels sprouts, savoys, red cabbage, 
and the cauliflower and broccoli. 

The popular German food, sauer-kraut, is made from sliced 
cabbage, sprinkled with salt, pressed and fermented. 

The inner and younger leaves of the cabbage contain much 
more water than the older leaves outside. On the whole, this 
vegetable may be considered more nutritious than the turnip. 

The chief constituents of cabbage are shown in accordance 
with the following analysis : — 

In 100 parts. 

Water 89*0 

Albumen . - - - - 1 '5 

Sugar, starch, and gum - - - - 5 '8 

Fat 0-5 

Cellulose and lignose - - - - 2 *o 

Mineral matter 1 *2 

For i part of flesh-formers in cabbages there are about 
47<5 parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch ■ broccoli and cauli- 
flower are rather richer in flesh-formers than cabbage. One pound 
of cabbage contains flesh-formers equal to nearly % oz. of the dry 
nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

According to Frankland, 1 lb. of cabbage, when digested and 
oxidized in the body, might set free force equal to 261 tons 
raised 1 ft. high. The greatest amount of external work which it 
would enable a man to perform is 52 tons raised 1 ft. high. 

Besides the cabbage and its many varieties, the green leaves 
of several other plants are eaten after having been boiled. Spinach 
(Spinacia oleraced), a native of Western Asia, is used in this way ? 
and is a wholesome vegetable; it contains much nitre. The 
leaves of some of the smaller varieties of beet (Beta vulgaris) are 
sometimes substituted for spinach. The mountain spinach, or 
orache {Atriplex hortensis), was once much grown in tl;is country, 
and is still cultivated in France ; it is a native of Tartary. The 
young shoots or tops of the common stinging nettle ( Urtica dioicd) 



SEA-KALE. 99 

are not unlike spinach when properly boiled and dressed. The 
leek {Allium Porrum) is another green and succulent vegetable, 
which is esteemed especially by the Scotch and Welsh. The 
whole plant, bulb and leaves, is eaten. It should be blanched by 
earthing up. It may be simply boiled, or introduced in place of 
onions (which it resembles in flavour and composition) into soups 
and stews. 

The next plant in this section, and one which we may describe 
more fully, is sea-kale, which is rendered mild and agreeable in 
taste by being earthed up. 

Sea-kale. 
(Crambe maritima.) 

Case 52. The sea-kale is a native perennial Crucifer. It is 
found, though rarely, in a wild state, upon some of our sandy and 
shingly coasts. It has been cultivated in England for more than 
200 years, and was introduced to the Continent from this country. 

Cultivated sea-kale is larger and more succulent than the wild 
plant, and has a more agreeable taste. It is earthed up, and the 
blanched stems and leaf-stalks then produced are eaten, after 
having been boiled. 

Sea-kale usually contains no sugar, but a good deal of mucilage 
and some starch. 

Freshly-cut sea-kale contains — 



Water - 
Albumen 

Mucilage and starch 
Cellulose 
Mineral matter 



n 100 parts. 

93'3 
2-4 


In 1 lb. 

oz. gr. 

14 406 

O 168 


2'8 


O 196 


0-9 


O 63 


o-6 


O 42 



Sea-kale contains a good deal of nitrogenous matter of one 
kind or another, but it is probable that the proportion of flesh- 
formers to heat-givers is not exactly shown in our analysis, which, 
indeed, gives the ratio 1 to 1, or thereabouts. 

H 2 



ioo VEGETABLE MARROW. 

The Cardoon is a perennial composite {Cynara Cardunculus), 
a native of Southern Europe. It is much like the common 
artichoke, but the part eaten is the blanched stalk of the young 
leaves. It is a very handsome plant. 

The Artichoke {Cynara Scolymus) is a native composite from 
Barbary and Southern Europe. The fleshy receptacle of the 
flower, the fleshy scales of the involucre, and the blanched leaf 
stalks are eaten after having been boiled. They have a delicate 
flavour and agreeable texture, but contain little nutritive matter. 
The young buds are sometimes pickled. 

Asparagus {Asparagus officinalis) is a wild seaside English 
plant, made more succulent by cultivation. It is remarkable as 
containing a crystalline alkaloid, asparaginic, which is thought to 
possess diuretic properties. 

The next articles of vegetable food which we shall notice in 
the present section are the vegetable marrow and the tomato. In 
both these plants it is the fruit which is eaten, but as these fruits 
are not valued because of that usual ingredient of fruits — sugar — 
but are used to accompany meat and other foods with which salt 
is eaten, they may be suitably considered here. 

Vegetable Marrow. 
{Cucurbita ovifcrai) 
Case 53. The vegetable marrow is thought to be a variety of 
the common gourd (Cucurbita maxima), a plant which appears 
to have given rise also to the pumpkin and the squash. The 
vegetable marrow is now largely grown in England. It delights 
in a rich and open soil, with abundance of moisture. 

Although the fruit of the vegetable marrow is very watery, 
yet it contains more nutritive matter than its close ally, the 
cucumber. In vegetable marrows, when fit for cooking, starch 
as well as sugar occurs. 

Peeled and properly cooked, young vegetable marrows form 
a wholesome and agreeable food, of delicate flavour and pleasant 
consistence. 



TOMATOES. 



101 



Peeled vegetable marrows contain — 

In ioo parts. 



In i lb. 



Water - 
Albumen 
Sugar 
Starch - 
Fat - • - 

Cellulose 
Mineral matter 



94-8 


■■ i5 


73 


o-6 





42 


2'0 





140 


o-6 





42 


0"2 





14 


1*3 





9i 


°'5 





35 



For 1 part of flesh-formers in the vegetable marrow there are 
about 4 parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

Tomatoes. 

French, Pommes d'amour. German, Liebesapfel. Italian, Pond 

d'amore. 
{Lycofiersicum esculentum.*) 

Case 53- The tomato, or love apple, is a plant belonging to the 
Nightshade Order — an order which includes the potato, the 
capsicum, and tobacco. It is most probably a native of Mexico. 

The fruit of the tomato requires a good deal of heat to ripen 
it thoroughly. The plant should be trained on a sheltered wall. 
They require good soil, and abundance of water. The tomato 
is now much more grown in England than formerly, several 
varieties, some with yellow and others with red fruit, being 
cultivated. 

Ripe tomatoes, which have a pleasant acidulous taste, are 
used in sauce and in other ways with cooked meat. Unripe 
tomatoes make a good pickle. 

Ripe tomatoes contain — 



Water 

Albumen 

Sugar 

Malic acid 

Cellulose and pectose 

Mineral matter .... 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in tomatoes there are about 4 parts 
of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 



In 100 parts. 


In 1 lb. 


89-8 


oz. gr. 
14 l6l 


I-4 


O 98 


6-o 


O 420 


07 


O 49 


i'3 


O 91 


o-8 


O 56 



io2 MUSHROOMS. 



Fungi and Mushrooms. 



The value of cryptogamic plants generally as food is ill under- 
stood ; and especially is the real nature of the several consti- 
tuents in the numerous kinds of fungi which have been eaten 
safely, still in some measure doubtful. A delicate and agreeable 
flavour is possessed by the common mushroom (Agaricus campes- 
tris), and by several allied species — by the morel (Morchetta cscu- 
lentd), and by the truffle, an underground species (Tuber ribarium) ; 
but none of these plants can be regarded as substantive articles 
of diet. They are used chiefly as navourers in the form of 
sauces, like ketchup, or, as in the case of truffles, as stuffing for 
animal food. The truffle, it should be stated, is sought for by 
means of dogs trained to scent it ; in France pigs are employed. 
Amongst other edible fungi (many of which are often called 
toadstools) may be named the champignon {Marasmius oreades), 
the chanterelle [{Cantharellus ribarius), the orange agaric {Lac- 
tarius deltriosus), the edible boletus {Boletus edulis), and many 
other species. But it is hazardous for persons who are not well 
acquainted with fungi to attempt to distinguish between those 
which are harmless and those which are poisonous. Serious and 
even fatal mistakes have thus arisen. We give some details 
concerning the common mushroom, as an example of this kind of 
food.* 

Mushrooms. 

French, Cha?npignons. German, Schwamme. Italian, Funghi. 
{Agaricus campestris.) 

Case 54. This is the fungus or mushroom generally eaten in 
England, although several other species are used as food on the 
Continent, and occasionally in this country also. 

* In Case 54 are shown two specimens of a fungus {Mylitta anstralis) called 
"native bread," from Tasmania ; also dried edible fungi from Tahiti', preserved 
fungi, and various preparations of the common mushroom. Numerous 
drawings of British edible and poisonous fungi are exhibited near this Case. 



ICELAND MOSS. 103 

The common mushroom, the champignon, and the morel, are 
nearly identical in chemical composition ; the truffle contains 
more than twice as much solid matter. Mushrooms are highly 
nitrogenous ; they also contain much fat. 

Mushrooms may be stewed, broiled, or pickled. When salted 
and pressed, they yield ketchup, an agreeable sauce. 

The chief constituents of mushrooms are — 

In ico parts. In i lb. 



Water 

Albuminoids, &c. 
Carbohydrates, &c. 
Fat - - - 
Mineral matter - 





07.. 


gr. 


90-0 


14 


175 


5-0 


O 


350 


3'8 • 


O 


266 


07 


O 


49 


°\5 


O 


35 



Though mushrooms contain, when dry, about half their weight 
of nitrogenous matter, its nature and feeding value have not been 
ascertained. 

Lichens. 

Case 55. 

Although several kinds of lichen have been turned to account 
in the arts (as in dyeing), very few are used as food. Tripe de 
roche, or rock tripe, is one of these, however — or we should say 
that the several plants to which this name is given have been 
occasionally used as food by distressed Arctic voyagers. Lung 
lichen (Sticta pulmonarid), several kinds of Peltidea, and the 
reindeer moss (Cladonia rangiferind), are also edible. But the 
best known of all these cryptogam ic plants is the lichen com- 
monly called Iceland moss. It may be taken as illustrating the 
-composition of all the edible species. 

Iceland Moss. 
' ( Cetraria islandica. ) 

Case 55. This plant is not a moss, but a lichen. It grows 
abundantly in high northern latitudes, upon otherwise barren 
rocks : it is also found in the mountainous districts of Great 
Britain, Ireland, and even of Southern Europe. 



io 4 SEA- WE EDS. 

Iceland moss is but little used in Iceland. When employed 
there, it is ground, mixed with flour, and added to soups. 

Iceland moss chiefly consists of a substance called lukenin, 
which closely resembles starch. One part of lichenin yields a 
jelly with twenty parts of boiling water. There is an acid in 
Iceland moss, to which its bitter taste is due ; this may be 
removed by soaking the moss in a weak solution of carbonate 
of soda. 

Iceland moss yields much sugar when boiled with weak sul- 
phuric acid ; the sugar thus formed may be fermented, and a 
spirit distilled from the fermented liquor. 

Iceland moss contains — 



Water 

Albuminoids 
Lichen-starch 
Lichen-acids, &c. 
Cellulose 
Mineral matter - 



For i part of flesh-formers in Iceland moss there are 8 parts 
of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of Iceland moss cannot produce more than i 2 / s oz. 
of the dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

Sea-weeds. 

Sea-weeds belong, like the fungi and the lichens, to the great 
sub-kingdom of the Cryfitogamz'a, or flowerless plants. The exact 
nutritive value of those kinds which are eaten is not made out, 
but they are not capable alone of sustaining life for any length of 
time. They have proved useful in times of scarcity to the poorer 
inhabitants of some maritime countries ; they have been used in 
Ireland when the potato crop has failed. But sea-weeds are 



In 100 parts. 


In 


lib. 




oz. 


gr. 


icro 


I 


262 


87 


I 


172 


70*0 


II 


88 


63 


I 


3 


3'5 


O 


245 


i*5 


O 


105 



SEA-WEEDS. 105 

rather to be regarded as occasional dainties, and as affording an 
agreeable substitute for ordinary vegetables. One kind described 
more fully farther on, is made into a jelly for consumptive 
patients. Besides this we name, 

Laver or sloke (Porpkyra laciniata and P. vulgaris) is found 
on the English coast. It is salted, and dressed with vinegar, 
pepper, and oil. 

Green laver (Ulva lactuca and U. latissima) resembles the 
purple laver, but is inferior. 

Tangle, or red ware, also called by other names, is Laminaria 
digitata and L. saccharina. It requires thorough boiling, and is 
then to be eaten with butter, pepper, and lemon-juice. 

Badderlochs, hen ware, honey ware, murlins (Alarm esculenta). 
The part of the plant which is eaten is the thick midrib which 
runs through the frond and the fruit-bearing appendages. 

The dulse of the south-west of England is the Iridcea edulis 
of botanists. It is said to resemble in its flavour roasted oysters. 

Dulse of the Scotch, dellisk, dellish, duileisg, water-leaf 
(Rhodymenia palmatd). The Icelanders use it as an article of 
diet, under the name of the sugar fucus. It is also used to 
flavour soups, ragouts, and other dishes. 

Several other sea-weeds are employed as food. Ceylon moss 
is Plocaria Candida. In China the people are very fond of them, 
and many kinds are collected and added to soups, or are eaten 
alone with sauce. One of these, a species of Nostoc, the Plocaria 
tenax, is called Chinese moss. The Corsican moss should be 
Gracilaria Helminthocorton, but is generally Zaurencia obtusa. It is 
found on the coasts of the Mediterranean. Another sea-weed was 
recently imported into London under the name of Australian 
moss (Eucheuma speciosuni), but it tastes too strongly of the sea to 
be pleasant. Durvittcm utilis is another sea-weed, used at Val- 
paraiso as food. Sphcerococcus lichenoides is found on the south 
coast of England, and has been used in pickles and soups. 

The commonest edible seaweed is called 



106 SALAD PLANTS. 

Irish Moss. 
[Chofidrus crisfins.~) 

Case ss. Irish moss (really a sea-weed) is one of the few marine 
plants which is commonly used as human food in Europe. It is 
abundant on our rocky coasts. Irish moss is collected on the 
north and north-west shores of Ireland ; some is imported from 
Hamburg. 

The true Irish moss, or carraigeen, is Chondrus crisfins, but 
other species, such as Gigartina ma?nillosa, are frequently col- 
lected with it. Both these kinds, as well as several similar edible 
sea-weeds, have about the same nutritive value, which is con- 
siderable. 

The chief constituent of Irish moss is a kind of mucilage, 
which dissolves to a stiff paste in boiling water. There is also a 
little iodine and much sulphur in it. Before boiling it in water or 
milk, Irish moss should be soaked in cold water for an hour 
or so. 

Irish moss is used as a food, and as a remedy in chest 
diseases. It is sometimes given to farm animals. 

Irish moss, as sold, contains — 

la ioo parts. In i lb. 

oz. gr. 

Water i8'8 ... 3 3 

Albuminoids - - - - - 9/4 ... I. 221 

Mucilage, &c. - - - - - 55-4 ... 8 378 

Cellulose 2 '2 ... o 154 

Mineral matter .... i4«2 ... 2 119 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in Irish moss there are about 5^ 
parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

Salads. 

Salad plants are very numerous ; but in former times many 
green vegetables were eaten uncooked which are now entirely 
forgotten. In 1669, Evelyn gave a list of 73 plants so used. His 



SALAD PLANTS. 107 

" Discourse of Sallets " includes a large number of weeds, the 
present neglect of which is not to be regretted ; yet some few of 
the green, fresh herbs which he names, might be introduced again 
with advantage. In France, the variety of salads in common use 
is much greater than in England, and it must be added, that the 
skill in preparing them for consumption is more marked. Too 
much care cannot be bestowed in the thorough cleansing of salad 
herbs, especially in the case of watercresses, with which many 
internal parasitic or entozoal animals are often introduced into the 
human body. Salad plants generally contain but little nourishing 
food of the heat-giving and flesh-forming kinds. But they are 
useful as being comparatively rich in saline matters, especially in 
potash salts, which are generally extracted from cooked vegetables 
in the process of boiling. They serve also to introduce large 
quantities of water into the system, and are refreshing additions 
to richer foods, especially in hot weather, when their " crisp, cool 
succulence " is peculiarly acceptable. In order to be thus juicy 
and crisp, lettuces and other salads, such as cucumbers, must not 
be gathered when wilted and drooping after a hot day ; too often 
this is the case, or else subsequent partial drying causes toughness. 
To obviate this defect, the root of lettuce or celery, &c, when 
dug up, should be trimmed under water, so as not to expose the 
cut stem or leaf-stalks to the air. The plants will then, if left in 
the water, imbibe more fluid very readily till their tissues are weli 
filled. The stalk of the cucumber should be cut under water, and 
remain in it just in the same way. In addition to lettuce, celery, 
watercress, and cucumber, which are more fully described further 
on, the following salad plants may be here noted : 

Cress (Lepidium sativum) is a small cruciferous annual, 
probably a native of Persia. Its seeds may be grown very readily 
upon any moist surface, and are commonly sown with those of 
white mustard, to yield the familiar spring salad known as mustard 
and cress. 

The Radish (Raphanus sativas), like most cruciferous plants, 



io8 CELERY. 

has a pungent taste. When small and quickly grown, it is adapted 
for use in salads. It may be cooked with advantage. 

Endive (Cichorium Endivia) belongs to the Composite : it is a 
native of Northern China. It is much used in salads, but its 
leaves, even when blanched, are rather bitter. 

Succory or Chicory {Cichorium Intybus) is a wild English 
plant, near the endive. Its leaves, when blanched, are used as 
salad. 

Borage, is Borago officinalis; it is used in claret and cider cups 
chiefly. Its leaves have a taste resembling that of cucumber. 

Burnet {Poterium sanguisorbd) belongs to the Rosacea ; its 
leaves, like those of borage, have much the taste of borage, and 
are used similarly. 

Samphire (Crithmum maritimum) is an aromatic and saline 
umbelliferous plant, common on many sea shores and cliffs. Once 
it was much used in salads ; now its leaves, gathered in May, are 
employed only in pickles. 

Sorrel (Ritmex scutatus), a hardy perennial, native of Southern 
Europe, is much grown in France as a salad herb. The English 
species (R. acetosa and R. acetoselld) are less juicy and more sour. 
All the kinds of sorrel contain oxalic acid and oxalates in 
abundance. 

Beet-root has been already described (p. 93). 

A fair idea of the composition of the fresh and juicy vegetables 
commonly used as salads may be gathered from the following 
analysis. It is necessary to state, however, that the flavour of 
these plants, depending, as it generally does, upon traces of 
volatile oils too small to be weighed, is not explained by the 
figures representing the chief components of these vegetables. 

Celery. 
French, Celei'i. German, Sellerie. Italian, Sedano. 
(Apium grazw/ens.) 
Case 56. Celery is a native biennial umbellifer, common in 



LETTUCE. 109 

sandy marshes. The wild plant has a very strong and disagree- 
able taste and smell ; the cultivated varieties are tender, mild, and 
succulent, when earthed up and supplied with abundance of water. 
The blanched leaf-stalks of celery are eaten uncooked, as a salad 
herb, and are also introduced into soups; they may also be 
stewed in the same manner as onions or sea-kale. The fruits of 
celery contain more than the other parts of the plant of the 
peculiar essential oil to which its characteristic odour and flavour 
are due. The quantity of this oil in celery as eaten is too minute 
to be represented in the analysis. 

Celery, it will be seen, contains some sugar. Freshly-cut 
celery has the following composition : — 

In 100 parts. In 1 lb. 
oz. gr. 

Water 93-3 ... 14 406 

Albumen- 1 '2 ... o 84 

Mucilage and starch - - - - I '6 ... 0112 

Sugar 2'2 ... o 154 

Cellulose 0*9 ... o 63 

Mineral matter o*8 ... o 56 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in celery there are about 3 parts of 
heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

Lettuce. 

French, Laitue. German, Lattich. Italian, Lattuga. 
{Lactuca sativa.) 

Case 56. The cultivated lettuce may have originated from 
Lactuca scariola, a wild form common in Europe. 

The lettuce is the most generally used of all the vegetables 
which are eaten in the uncooked state. The varieties grown may 
be included in the cos or upright lettuce, and the cabbage or 
spreading lettuce. 

Lettuces contain but little nutriment of any kind, except 
mineral salts, especially nitre. This and other soluble salts are 
removed from vegetables which require cooking by the water in 
which they are boiled. A small quantity of a sleep-producing 



no 



WATERCRESS. 






n ioo parts. 


In 1 lb. 




oz. gr. 


96-0 


15 157 


07 


O 49 


I'O 


O 112 


02 


O 14 


0-5 


35 


I'O 


70 



substance, called lactucarin, is found in the stem of the lettuce, 
particularly when the plant is flowering. 

Lettuces are a refreshing addition to more solid food. 

The lettuce contains — 



Water - - - . - - - 9 6 '° 
Albumen ------ 

Starch, sugar, and gum - 

Leaf-green and fat - 

Cellulose - - - - - 

Mineral matter - 

The quantity of heat-givers and flesh-formers in the lettuce is 
insignificant. 



Watercress. 

French, Cresson d'eau. German, Wasserkresse. Italian, Crescione. 
{Nasturtium officinale.) 

Case 56. The watercress is a native cruciferous plant, which 
grows freely in wet places, especially in shallow streams. It is 
one of the most popular and most wholesome of all salad plants. 
It is generally assumed to owe its pungent taste and medicinal 
value to the presence of an essential oil, containing, like that of 
mustard, a considerable quantity of sulphur. But it has been 
shown that the chief constituent of the essential oil of watercress, 
though rich in nitrogen, contains no sulphur j there is, however, 
much sulphur, in one form or another, in this plant. Watercress 
is also remarkable for the quantity of mineral matter which is 
found in it. 

The younger shoots of the watercress should be selected ; they 
have a pleasant acidulous yet warm taste. ~ Great care should be 
taken that they are perfectly clean and free from adhering animal 
matters. 



CUCUMBERS. 



in 



Watercress contains- 



Water - 

Albuminoids 
Starch, gum, &c. 
Leaf-green and fat - 
Cellulose and lignose 
Mineral matter 



In ioo parts. 

• 93*1 
17 
27 
0-5 
07 
i"3 



In 1 lb. 
3Z. gr. 



14 
O 
O 

o 
o 

o 



392 
119 
189 

35 
49 
Qi 



The dietetic value of the watercress cannot be judged of by 
the proportion or amount of flesh-formers and heat-givers present, 
as it depends mainly upon the mineral matters, aromatic oil, and 
other minor ingredients. 



Cucumbers. 

French, Coneombres. German, Gurken. Italian, Cocomeri. 
(Cucumis sativus.) 

Case 56. The cucumber, like the melon, the vegetable marrow, 
and the pumpkin, is a tropical plant, belonging to the Gourd 
Order (Cucurbitacece) . 

These plants flourish best in a rich but open soil ; they 
require much water. When the fruit of the cucumber is grown 
quickly under glass it is more juicy and digestible than when 
grown slowly in the open air. 

Young cucumbers are pickled in vinegar, and are known as 
gherkins. 

The rind of the cucumber fruit is indigestible. The fruit 
itself contains little else besides water, some grape sugar, and a 
trace of volatile flavouring matter. 

Peeled cucumbers contain — 

In i«so parts. 

Water 96-2 

Albumen 0*2 

Sugar (glucose) 2'o 

Pectose and gum 07 

Cellulose 0*5 

Mineral matter ovj. 



In 
oz. 
... 15 


ilb. 
gr. 
171 


O 


14 


O 


140 


O 


49 


O 
O 


35 
28 



ii2 FRUITS. 

§ 5. — Saccharine and Oily Fruits. 

Many of the vegetable products in this section are esteemed 
rather for their pleasant or refreshing taste than for any nutritive 
value which they may be assumed to possess. But though this 
is the case in our country, the statement is not true generally. 
The banana and the fig, among fruits rich in sugar, and the 
coco-nut, among those which abound in oil, are of vital import, 
ance as substantive articles of diet to the populations of many 
countries, where the fruits we have just named may be grown 
easily and abundantly. But, of course, there are some fruits 
which could never prove of much service as food, owing to the 
large quantities of water and small quantities of flesh-forming 
matter which characterise the more juicy and succulent sorts. 
Yet such fruits are especially valuable on account of their potash 
salts, the citrate, malate, and tartrate. When fish or meat which 
has been preserved with common salt, the chloride of sodium, 
forms the chief article of diet, the blood loses much of its 
potash compounds, and becomes unhealthy, unless the loss be 
made up. Now, fresh vegetables and fruits, notably the lemon 
and the lime, effect this, for the reason above stated. But fruits 
have a nutritive value, if a small one ; and besides that, their 
flavour and juiciness may serve to stimulate a weak appetite, to 
give variety and lightness to an otherwise solid diet, and to 
contribute, in a palatable and refreshing form, much of. the water 
required for the daily needs in digestion and assimilation. 

In the analyses of fruits which are here given, we have not 
pretended to enter into all those differences, often, very minute, 
which distinguish fruits from one another. Sometimes the scent 
and flavour of a fruit altogether defy the powers of chemical 
analysis ; sometimes the same odorous substance is detected in 
two products of decidedly different fragrance. And then so much 
of the character of fruits depends upon their texture — a quality 
that cannot be analysed— that we must rest content with a rather 



APPLES. 113 

imperfect account of the chief nutrients and characteristic com- 
pounds present. It should be added, that many fruits contain 
when ripe pectin, the jelly-like substance into which the pectose of 
unripe fruits is changed ; that most fruits, especially those which 
are soft and watery, rapidly suffer decay and fermentation ; that 
the substances to which fruits owe their colour are insignificant 
in amount, and of no known dietetic importance ; and that the 
changes which succulent fruits undergo, and the frequent presence 
of much acid or acid-salt in them, renders them liable to cause, 
especially when unripe or over-ripe, diarrhoea and other derange- 
ments of the digestive tract. Irritation, and even fatal inflam- 
mation of the intestine, have resulted from the indigestible skins, 
of certain fruits, as plums. 

Before describing the oily fruits, most of which are commonly 
spoken of as nuts, a few examples of characteristic and important 
fruits containing sugar will be given. The apple and pear may 
take precedence; and then we may consider other fruits which 
are natives of this country, or ripen in our climate. Foreign 
fruits will afterwards be noticed, especially those which — like 
oranges, grapes, and figs — are imported in large quantities into 
Great Britain. No strict arrangement, either botanical or che- 
mical, will be followed. 



Apples. 

French, Pommes. German, Apfel. Italian, Mele. 
(Pyrus Mains.) 

Case 57. The apple — like the pear, the quince, and the 
medlar — belongs to the Rose Order. The numerous varieties 
of cultivated apples have sprung from the wild apple or crab, a 
native of Great Britain. The apple is one of the hardiest of 
trees, but the fruit requires a considerable degree of summer heat 
to bring it to perfection. In the southern hemisphere, as in New 

1 



ii 4 PEARS. 

Zealand and Australia, it ripens well; yet good English apples 
have not been excelled in flavour and firmness. 

The fermented liquor called cider is made from the expressed 
juice of apples. This fruit is also extensively used in pies, 
puddings, sauces, and confectionery. Dried or pressed apples 
are known as Normandy pippins, Norfolk biffins, &c. 

The apple is an agreeable fruit ; it is made very wholesome 
by baking or boiling. 

Apples contain a small quantity of a fragrant essential oil, not 
represented in the following analysis : — 



ioo parts. 


In 


ilb. 




oz. 


gr. 


S3 -o 


13 


122 


0'4 


O 


28 


6-8 


I 


39 


I'O 


O 


70 


5'2 


O 


364 


3-2 


O 


224 


04 


O 


28 



Water 

Albumen 

Sugar 

Malic acid 

Pectose, pectin, and gum 

Cellulose 

Mineral matter ... - 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in apples there are 20 parts of 
heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

Pears. 

French, Poires. German, Birnen. Italian, Pere. 
(Pyrus communis.') 

Case 57, where The P ear ' like the ^PP le > tne quince, and the 

tffidaV'Senc^ medlar > belongs to a section of the Rose Order, 
called PomacecE. The wild pear-tree is a native of 
England ; it is the origin of the many improved kinds now in 
cultivation. 

Some pears are hard and tasteless when gathered, requiring to 
be stored several months before they become fit for eating. Other 
varieties ripen early, and very soon afterwards begin to decay. 

Some pears are adapted for baking, others for stewing. From 
some kinds the strong fermented liquor known as perry is made. 



arti 

of Pears. 



GOOSEBERRIES. 



"5 



In i 


lb. 


oz. 


gr. 


13 


203 


O 


21 


I 


52 


O 


7 


O 


322 


O 


259 


O 


21 



An artificial " Essence of Jargonelle Pears " is much used for 
flavouring " pear-drops," and other sweetmeats j it is a solution in 
spirit of amyl acetate. It is thought that the flavour of pears is 
partly due to this substance. 

Pears contain — 

In 100 parts. 

Water 84*0 

Albumen ------ 0*3 

Sugar 7-0 

Malic acid o'l 

Pectose and gum - - - - r 4*6 

Cellulose 37 

Mineral matter 0*3 , 

The Quince (Cydom'a vulgaris) is a native of Southern Europe. 
Its strongly-flavoured fruits are sometimes added to apple-pies and 
puddings ; they make an excellent marmalade, and also a very 
agreeable jelly. Quince seeds are rich in mucilage. 

The Medlar (Cydom'a germanica) is a common European 
plant. Its fruit is not eatable until it has undergone a 
singular natural change, which is not in reality a process of decay, 
though it may appear to be so. 

Some other fruits of the Pomacece, a division of the Rose 
Order, are eaten. 

Gooseberries. 

French, Groseilles. German, Stachelbeeren. Italian, Uve spine. 
(Rides Grossularia.~) 

Case 57. The gooseberry grows wild in Great Britain and in 
many parts of Northern Europe. It belongs to the same order 
of plants as the red currant and the black currant. Numerous 
varieties of the gooseberry have arisen in cultivation. The 
fruits of these sorts do not differ much in chemical composition, 
although unlike in size, colour, and flavour. 

In the North of England this fruit is extensively cultivated, 

I 2 



16 CURRANTS, STRAWBERRIES, RASPBERRIES. 



and has been brought to a great degree of perfection. It is a 
wholesome fruit, especially when cooked ; it makes a good 
preserve and a tolerable wine. Large quantities of gooseberries 
are bottled for winter use. 

The gooseberry contains from 6 to 8 per cent, of sugar, 
together with about i ^ per cent, of citric and malic acids. 

Gooseberries contain, as an average — 

In ioo parts. In i lb. 

oz. gr. 

Water 86*0 ... 13 33 2 

Albumen 0*4 ... o 28 

Sugar 7'o ... 1 52 

Citric acid 1*5 ... o 105 

Pectose and gum 1*9 ... o 133 

Cellulose 27 ... o 189 

Mineral matter - - - - - 0*5 ... o 35 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in ripe gooseberries there are 
about 20 parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. The quantity 
of flesh-formers in 1 lb. of gooseberries is insignificant. 

The Black Currant is Rides nigrum, while the Red and 
White Currant both belong to another species, R. rubrum. 
Cultivation has greatly improved the quality and increased the 
size of these fruits. Many varieties of red currant are grown. 
In composition these fruits do not differ much from the goose- 
berry. They, are not nearly related to the small dry fruits called 
currants, which are produced by a small vine. 

The Strawberry, though containing more water than the 
gooseberry or the currant, has a richer fragrance and flavour. 
The cultivated varieties have arisen from several species of 
Fi-agraria, but mainly from the wild F. vesca, the common straw- 
berry of our English woods. 

The Raspberry (Rubtis idceus) is a native of Britain. 
Several varieties of the cultivated plant are grown, the fruits being 
either red or pale amber. From the raspberry, as well as from 
the gooseberry and currant, jam, jelly, and wine of good quality 



GRAPES. 117 

are made. Strawberries are often preserved with sugar, but this 
fruit is perhaps better appreciated as a dessert fruit. 

The Blackberry {Rubus fruticosus) and the Dewberry 
{R. cousins') are wild fruits which would repay cultivation. The 
flavour of some of the wild sorts is decidedly superior to that of 
others, and these may be made to yield a good preserve and a 
full-flavoured wine. 

The Barberry (Berberis vulgaris) is a native of Britain. Its 
bright red fruit has an acid taste, but makes a pleasant preserve. 

The Bearberry {Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) is a British plant 
belonging to the Heath Order. Its red berries are eaten by 
grouse. 

The Bilberry ( Vaccinium myrtillis) and Whortleberry 
( V. uliginosum) are common in many woods. Their fruits may 
be made into a preserve. 

The Cranberry is nearly related to the bilberry. The fruits 
of several species are used in the form of jams and in tarts. Large 
quantities of cranberries are imported from Russia and North 
America, 

The Elderberry is the fruit of Sambucus nigra, a native tree. 
A richly-flavoured wine is made from elderberries. 

Grapes. 

French, Raisins. German, Weintrauben. Italian, Uve. 
( Vitis vinifera. ) 

Case 58. The vine was very probably originally a native of 
Western Asia and the region south of the Caspian. It is pro- 
fitably grown between 30 and 40 ? north latitude. 

By long-continued cultivation of the original plant in different 
soils and climates, numerous varieties of the vine have arisen. 
Most of these kinds are grown for wine-making in France, Ger- 
many, Southern Europe, the Cape, Australia, &c. Some varieties 
yield fruits, which are simply dried. These are known as Valentia, 



n8 PLUMS. 

muscatel, and sultana raisins — the last, from Turkey, have no 
seeds. Raisins are rich in sugar. The dried currants of the 
shops are merely very small raisins from a variety of the vine 
grown in the Ionian Isles ; they are indigestible. 

Fresh ripe grapes contain much sugar, sometimes nearly 20 
per cent. The acid of grapes is chiefly tartaric, part of which is 
combined with potash. 

Fresh grapes, of average quality, contain — 

In 100 parts. In i lb. 

oz. gr. 

Water 8o*o ... 12 350 

Albumen 07 ... o 49 

Sugar (glucose) - - - - - 13*0 ... 2 35 

Tartaric acid o"8 ... o 56 

Pectose and gum 3"i ... o 217 

Cellulose 2'o ... o 140 

Mineral matter - - - - - 0*4 ... o 28 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in grapes there are about 20 parts 
of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. Grapes are twice as nutritious 
as gooseberries.* 

Plums, &c. 

The cherry, the plum, the apricot, and the peach are the 
chief " stone-fruits." They all belong to the same section (JDru- 
pacecR) of the Rose Order, and are characterised by the presence 
of a hard seed with the fleshy pericarp. This seed contains an 
edible kernel, -generally rich in oil, and having an aromatic some- 
what bitter taste. 

The cherry is Primus Cerasus. This fruit is generally richer 
in .sugar than many other fruits which ripen in this country, 
often containing 10 per cent, and sometimes more. One variety 
rather less sweet than the morello, is specially used in preparing 
the liqueur cherry brandy. 

Many kinds of plums, as damsons, prunes, French plums, 

* In Cases 14, 15, and 37 will be found bunches of currants from Cepha- 
lonia, with raisins, muscatels, sultanas, and currants from Patras, Cephalonia, 
Zante, Gulf of Salonica, Vostizza, Spain, Naples, Persia. Turkey, and South 
Australia ; also illustration of French modes of cultivating the grape-vine. 



PEACHES. n 9 

greengages, are now extensively grown here or on the Continent. 
There is less sugar in plums generally than in cherries, but they 
contain a very large amount of pectose and pectin, the chief sub- 
stances to which the gelatinizing character of these fruits is due. 
In the greengage, for instance, Fresenius found i% per cent, of 
sugar only, but not less than 10^ per cent, of pectous substances, 
or vegetable jelly. 

The peach is here described more at length, as an example of 
this class of fruits, which, it must be noted, are generally less 
wholesome than most of those already considered in these pages. 

Peaches. 

French, Peches. German, Pfirsiche. Italian, Pesce. 
(Amygdalus persica. ) 

Case 59. The peach and the nectarine are produced by varieties 
of the same tree. It belongs to the almond group of the Rose 
Order. 

The peach is now grown in many temperate climates. American 
peaches are said to be inferior to the English in richness of 
flavour ; they are imported into this country dried, and also in tins. 

The kernels of peach-stones yield an oil identical with that of 
bitter almonds ; they are used in flavouring liqueurs. There is 
not much nutritive matter in the peach, but it is an agreeable and 
refreshing fruit. The quantity of sugar it contains is but small, 
yet the acid present is masked by much vegetable jelly, included 
in the analysis below under " pectose and gum." The skin of the 
peach is indigestible. 

Peaches contain, after removal of the stones — 



Water - 
Albumen 
Sugar - 
Malic acid 
Pectose and gum 
Cellulose 
Mineral matter 



In 100 parts. 


In 1 lb. 




oz. gr. 


85-0 


13 363 


0'5 


35 


1-8 


O 126 


07 


O 49 


8-o 


I 122 


3'4 


O 238 


o-6 


O 42 



120 RHUBARB. 

Apricots (the fruit of Primus armeniaca) closely resemble 
peaches and nectarines in composition, but generally contain 
rather more sugar. 

Rhubarb. 
( Rheum rhaponticum?) 

Case 59. Although used as a fruit, it is scarcely necessary to 
say that rhubarb is the stalk or petiole of the leaf. The plant 
furnishing this agreeable and succulent food is a hardy perennial, 
from the Volga river, and has been grown in this country since 
1573. There are several varieties of Rheum rhaponticum in culti- 
vation, and it is possible that R. undulatum may also be amongst 
the different kinds of rhubarb in use. The rhubarb belongs to 
the Buckwheat Order (Polygonacece). 

The agreeable taste and odour of rhubarb are not brought out 
till the leaf-stalks are cooked. But when the expressed juice of 
these is allowed to ferment, it yields, with proper treatment, a 
delicious wine. The chief nutrient in rhubarb is the sugar 
(glucose), which amounts to about 2 parts in 100 of the fresh 
stalks. Its sour taste is due to oxalic acid, or rather to the 
acid oxalate of potash ; oxalate of lime is also present. There 
are some conditions of the human body (the oxalic-acid diathesis) 
in which it is probably wiser to .avoid eating rhubarb and other 
plants, as sorrel, in which oxalic compounds predominate. 

The composition of the freshly-cut leaf-stalks of a red variety 
of rhubarb which had been grown in the open air, and were in 
good condition for use, is here shown : — 

Composition of Rhubarb. 

In 100 parts. In i lb. 

oz. gr. 

Water - - - - ' - - 95-1 ... 15 94 

Albumen 0*9 ... o 63 

Sugar (glucose) and gum - - - 2*1 ... o, 147 

Oxalic acid 0*3 ... o 21 

Cellulose I'l ... o 77 

Mineral matter 0*5 ... o 35 

As i lb. of rhubarb contains less than 1 oz. of solid matter, 



FIGS. 121 

and as even of this solid matter more than one quarter is not 
nutritive, it is obvious that the food value of this vegetable is very 
small. It is, indeed, esteemed mainly for its pleasant flavour, 
which is due to a trace of some volatile matter, too small to be 
identified, along with a little grape sugar and the acidulous com- 
pound already mentioned. 

Figs and dates next claim attention. They are imported in a 
partially dried condition, and consequently are far more nutri- 
tious, weight for weight, than any of the fresh fruits we have been 
considering. 

Figs. 

French, Figues. German, Feigen. Italian, Fid. 

{Fiats carica.) 

Case 59. The Fig Order includes several important trees, such 

as the mulberry and the banyan : one kind of fig-tree (F elasticd) 

yields much of the india-rubber of commerce. The sycamore fig 

(F sycomorus) is a small fruit, common in Egypt, from another 

species. 

The edible fig is a native of the Eastern Aral, the Caucasus, 
Syria, Persia, Asia Minor, and perhaps of South-Eastern Europe 
and Northern Africa ; it has been long grown in the regions of 
the Mediterranean. The fig is cultivated in warm and sheltered 
situations in the south of England. 

Large quantities of dried and pressed figs are imported into 
England. They contain much sugar, and but little water. The 
numerous so-called seeds in the fig are indigestible, and some- 
times have an irritant action. 

Dried Turkey figs contain — 

Water ...... 

Albumen - 

Sugar (glucose) - - - - 

Starch 

Pectose and gum - - - - 

Fat 

Cellulose - 
Mineral matter - 



In 100 parts. 


In 


ilb. 




OZ. 


gr. 


17-5 


2 


350 


6-i 


O 


427 


57*5 


9 


83 


3-0 


O 


2IO 


5 '4 


O 


373 


0-9 


O 


63 


7"3 


I 


83 


2-3 


O 


l6l 



122 DATES. 

For i part of flesh-formers in dried figs there are quite 10 
parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of dried figs might produce at the most nearly 
i oz. of the dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

Mulberries are the fruit of a beautiful tree (Mortis nigra) 
belonging to the Fig Order, of Western Asia, extensively grown m 
Europe. Mulberries contain more acid than most dessert fruits, 
but possess a very characteristic flavour. 

Dates. 

French, Dattes. German, Datteln. Italian, Datteri. 
(Phoenix dactylifera.) 

Case 59. Dates are 'the fruit of a palm. The tree has been 
introduced into Southern Europe, but it is a native of North 
Africa. The cultivation of the date-palm is of great antiquity. 

The fruits of this palm grow in clusters, weighing 20 lb. or 
more ; they form an important food in Egypt and Arabia. Dates 
pounded and pressed into a kind of cake are much used by the 
inhabitants of Northern Africa, and by travellers through the 
Sahara Desert. 

Dates contain more than half their weight of sugar, but there 
is a fair amount of flesh-formers present as well. 

Dates, without the stone, contain — 



Water - 

Albumen 

Sugar 

Pectose and gum 

Fat 

Cellulose 

Mineral matter 



In 100 parts. 


In 


ilb. 




oz. 


gr- 


20 -8 


3 


143 


6'6 


1 


25 


54 


8 


2SO 


12-3 


1 


424 


0*2 





H 


5 '5 





3§S 


1-6 





112 



For 1 part of flesh-formers in dates there are 10 parts of heat- 
givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of dates might produce about 1 oz. of the dry 
nitrogenous substance of muscle, or flesh. 



CAR OB OR LOCUST BEANS. 123 

Bananas. 

(Afusa sapientum.) 

Case 60. The banana is the fruit of a handsome plant, grown 
almost everywhere in the tropics ; it is a most important article of 
food in many hot countries. Bananas have been cultivated in 
India and China from very remote ages. Another species or 
variety of this plant (M. fiaradisaica) yields the plantain, a fruit 
almost identical with the banana. 

The banana is a nutritious food, having less water and more 
nitrogenous matter than is commonly found in fresh fruits. It 
contains, when ripe, much sugar, but very little starch. 

The banana is a very productive plant. Its fruit grows in 
clusters of 100 to 200; a bunch of them will often weigh 50 lb. 
They are imported, to some extent, into this country, as a dessert 
fruit. 

Fresh-peeled bananas contain — 



Water - 

Albumen 

Sugar and pectose 

Fat 

Cellulose 

Mineral matter 



In 100 parts. 


In 1 lb. 




oz. gr. 


73*9 


II 361 


4-8 


O 336 


197 


.. 3 66 


o-6 


42 


CT2 


14 


o-8 


56 



For 1 part of flesh-formers in fresh-peeled bananas there are 
4 parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of bananas might produce, at the most, ^ oz. of 
the dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

Our next fruit is scarcely used at all in this country, except as 
food for cattle and horses ; but it is of interest as a legume con- 
taining much sugar. 

Carob Beans. 
( Ceratonia siliqua. ) 
Case 60. Carob beans or locust beans, called also algaroba and 
St. John's bread, are really entire pods, not merely beans or seeds. 



i2 4 ORANGES. 

They are the fruit of a leguminous tree, a native of South Europe 
and the Levant. 

Carob pods contain a soft pulp, rich in sugar; they are by no 
means deficient in flesh-formers. They are used chiefly for feeding 
cattle in England, but in some of the countries bordering on the 
Mediterranean they are employed also as human food. They 
contain a small quantity of a peculiar volatile acid, known as 
butyric acid — this gives them a rather rancid smell. Carob pods 
attract moisture from the air, and are liable to become mouldy on 
keeping. 

Imported carob pods, as met with in the London market, 
contain — 



Water - 

Albumen 

Sugar - 

Pectose and gum - 

Fat 

Cellulose and lignose 

Mineral matter 



In ioo parts. 


In 1 lb. 




oz. gr. 


14 '6 


2 I47 


7-1 


I 60 


51-8 


8 126 


ifi'i 


2 252 


1*1 


77 


6-4 


1 10 


2-9 


203 



For 1 part of flesh-formers in carob pods there are S}4 parts 
of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. One pound of carob pods 
cannot produce much over 1 oz. of the dry nitrogenous sub- 
stance of muscle or flesh. 

Oranges. 

French, Oranges. German, Apfelsinen. Italian, Melarancie. 
{Citrus Aurantium.*) 

Case 60. The tree which yields this delicious and wholesome 
fruit is a native of India, but it has been long grown in Southern 
Europe. Many varieties exist, as the mandarin orange, with an 
easily detached and very fragrant rind ; the Malta blood* orange, 
with red flesh ; and the bergamot, which yields an essential oil 
much used in perfumery. The bitter or Seville orange {Citrus 



ORANGES, ETC. 125 

Bigaradia) ; the lime (C. Limetta) ; the citron (C medico) ; the 
lemon (C. Limonwri) ; the shaddock, pomaloe, or forbidden fruit 
(C decumona) ; and the cumquat (C.j'aponica), are all species of 
the same genus, and are all characterised by the presence of 
similar fragrant essential oils in the peel or rind, and by varying 
quantities of citric acid, citrate of potash, and sugar in their fleshy 
pulp. Besides the flavours they impart to other foods, many of 
the fruits we have named are of direct alimentary and medicinal 
value. The orange and its various products, in the form of 
orange marmalade (into which Seville oranges are generally 
introduced), orange wine, and candied orange-peel are the best 
known. This fruit is imported into England in vast quantities 
from Malta, the Mediterranean coasts, Lisbon, and the Azores — 
very fine fruit being brought from the island of St. Michael. The 
orange can, however, be enjoyed in perfection only when taken 
perfectly ripe from the tree. The imported fruits are always 
gathered in an unripe state. The orange-tree yields another 
essential oil besides that in the fruit — the oil of neroli being 
obtained from orange-flowers. The tree is evergreen, and its rich, 
green, glossy leaves, and masses of golden fruit, form a beautiful 
feature in the landscape of many parts of Italy. 

An orange of good quality should not lose more than one-fifth 
its weight by the removal of the peel. The peeled fruit contains 
about 86 per cent, of water, 8 to 10 per cent, of sugar, and small 
quantities of citric acid, citrate of potash, albumen, cellulose, &c. 

We shall have to recur to the subject of the Orange Order 
when discussing the "flavourers," in the Fourth Part of this book, 
on Food Adjuncts. 

The pomegranate (Punica Granata), the prickly pear {Opuntia 
vulgaris), the jak fruit of Ceylon {Artocarpus integrifolia), the 
bread-fruit of the Moluccas and other islands (Artocarpus incisa), 
the tamarind, the mangosteen, and many other fruits, which we 
have no space to describe, are of considerable importance in 
different parts of the world — some of these fruits forming the 



126 WALNUTS. 

chief sustenance of large populations. Among them, mention 
should be made of the pine-apple {Bro??ielia Ananas), which of 
late years, through the large importations of these fruits from the 
West Indian Islands, has become familiar and accessible to every- 
one. Originally of Brazilian origin, this plant has rapidly spread 
in many tropical countries. It has been grown in England for 
nearly 200 years. 

Nuts. 

Cases 61 & 62. The chestnut is so rich in starch, and contains so 
little oil or fat, that it might have been included amongst the bread- 
stuffs. It is the produce of Castanea vesca, the sweet or Spanish 
chestnut tree, a native of Western Asia. Large quantities are 
imported from Spain and Italy, where, as in Southern Europe 
generally, it forms an important article of food. Its meal is made 
into cakes, or the nuts are boiled or roasted. 

In the oily seeds or nuts which are now to be described, we 
have food-products of very great value. They contain little or no 
starch, but much nitrogenous or albuminoid matter, together with, 
in many cases, 50 per cent, of fixed oil or fat. They are rather 
rich food, and somewhat difficult of digestion, unless ground into 
meal, or cooked, or mixed with lighter kinds of food. The oil in 
some nuts is very liable to become rancid and unwholesome. We 
select for description the walnut, the filbert, the almond, and two 
or three well-known kinds. 

Walnuts. 

French, Noix. German, Wallnilsse. Italian, Nod. 
{jfuglans regia.) 

Case 63. The walnut-tree is a native of the Himalayas, Persia, 
and the southern provinces of the Caucasus. It was introduced 
into Greece and Italy some centuries before the Christian era. 
The walnut is now grown throughout temperate Europe. 

Unripe walnut fruits, when the shell is still soft, make an 



FILBERTS. 



excellent pickle ; a delicate sweetmeat is prepared by boiling 
them in sirup. 

Walnuts contain a sweet oil much used in Southern Europe 
for food, and, under the name of nut-oil, for painting. The marc 
of walnut-kernels, or walnut-cake, is a good cattle food. 

Walnuts in the shell yield one-third their weight (about 36 per 
cent.) of peeled kernels, which are the crumpled cotyledons, or 
seed-leaves. These when quite fresh contain — 



&c. 



00 parts. 


In 1 lb. 




cz. gr. 


44 '5 


7 53 


12-5 


..20 


8-9 


1 185 


3i-6 


5 , 24 


o-8 


56 


17 


119 



Water - 

Albumen 

Mucilage, 

Oil 

Cellulose 

Mineral matter 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in walnut-kernels there are about 
6^4 parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of walnuts cannot produce more than 2 oz. of the 

dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

Case 63. The Hazel-Nut, the Filbert, and the Cobnut 

are produced by Corylus avellana, and the cultivated varieties of 

this native tree. The best hazel-nuts come from Spain, and are 

known as Barcelona nuts. Cobnuts and filberts are largely grown 

in Kent. Fine filberts, freshly gathered and ripe, contain rather 

more than half their weight of edible kernel. This, if analysed 

before drying, just as it is taken from the shell, gives the following 

results : — 

Composition of Filbert Kernels. 



Water - 

Albumen, &c- 

Oil 

Mucilage, starch, 

Cellulose 

Mineral matter 



&c. 



00 parts. 


In 1 lb. 




oz. gr. 


48-0 


7 297 


8-4 . 


I 151 


28-5 . 


4 245 


11*1 


1 340 


2'5 


175 


i*5 


105 



For 1 part of flesh-formers there are here about 10 parts of 
heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 



i 2 8 GRO UND-NUTS—PISTA CHIO-NUTS. 

Cases 61 & 6 3 . Another well-known oily nut is the Sweet Almond, 
the produce of a small Mediterranean tree (Amygdalus communis), 
belonging to a section of the Rose Order. The so-called Jordan 
almonds come from Malaga/' The almond does not ripen pro- 
perly in this country. The brown coat of the almond kernel is 
indigestible, and should be removed by pouring boiling water 
on the kernels and peeling them. Almonds correspond in general 
character to filbert kernels, but are much drier when imported 
than when gathered. The bitter almond is produced by a mere 
variety of the same tree, but it contains a peculiar ferment called 
emulsin, which is capable of changing a nitrogenous matter, 
present in the bitter almond and the sweet, into prussic acid, the 
essential oil of bitter almonds, and glucose. This change occurs 
when bitter almond meal is mixed with water and gently warmed. 

Case 46. The Ground-Nut, or pea-nut (AracMs hypogcza), 
though an oily seed, really belongs to the leguminous plants, and 
has been already described in the section on pulse. In addition 
to 50 per cent, of oil it contains about the same amount of 
nitrogenous matter (24*5 per cent.) which usually occurs in 
beans and peas. 

Composition of Ground-Nuts (shelled). 

In 100 parts. 

Water - -, - - - - 7*5 

Casein, &c. 24*5 

Oil - - 50*0 

Mucilage, &c. - - - - - 11*7 

Cellulose and lignose - - - - 4*5 

Mineral matter - - - - - i*8 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in these seeds there are 5 parts 
of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

Case 63. The Pistachio-Nut {Pistatia vera) is the produce of 
a small Mediterranean tree. The fruit resembles a small almond, 

* In Case 61 are shown fifty varieties of almonds cultivated in France. 



In 


ilb. 


oz. 

I 


gr. 
87 


3 


403 


8 


O 


1 


382 





315 





126 



COCO-NUTS. 129 

but has a bright green kernel, which owes its colour to chloro- 
phyll, or leaf-green. The kernels possess a taste not unlike that 
of the sweet almond • they are much used in French confec- 
tionery. The following analysis represents the 

Composition of Pistachio-Kernels. 

In 100 parts. In 1 lb. 

oz. gr. 

Water 7-4 ... 1 80 

Albuminoids 227 ... 3 272 

Oil 51T ... 8 77 

Mucilage, &c. 13*0 ... 2 35 

Cellulose 2*5 ... o 175 

Mineral matter 3-3 ... o 231 

For i part of flesh-formers in pistachio-kernels there are 
6 parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of Pistachio-kernels might produce at the utmost 
3^ oz. of the dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

Case 64. The Olive ( Olea europcea) contains most of its oil 
outside the seed, in the green fleshy pericarp, which is sometimes 
eaten, the whole fruit being preserved in brine. 

Case 64. The Hickory-Nut is produced by a North American 
tree (Carya alba), which belongs to the Juglandacetz. It re- 
sembles a small walnut. Another species of the same genus, 
C. olivozformis, yields a similar nut, the pecan or picary nut. 

Case 64. The nut of the Cocos nucifera, commonly called cocoa- 
nut, but which we shall here term the coco-nut (to distinguish 
it from cacao), is a very characteristic fruit, rich in oil. 

Coco-Nut. 

French, Coco. German, Cocosnuss. Italian, Cocco. 

(Cocos nucifera?) 

The lofty and most useful tree which yields the coco-nut is a 

palm, now largely cultivated in many tropical islands, and on 

many tropical coasts. A single tree will bear from 80 to 100 

fruits. 



i 3 o DIKA BREAD. 

The outer husk of the coco-nut affords a strong fibre called 
" coir," from which mats, brushes, and cordage are made. The 
shell of the nut is formed into bottles and drinking-cups, and 
gives, when properly burnt, a very valuable charcoal. The spirit 
called " arrack " is distilled from the fermented juice, or " toddy," 
of the flowering branch of the coco-nut palm, while the milk or 
liquid part of the kernel is, when fresh, a nourishing and pleasant 
beverage. 

The solid white kernel of the coco-nut is .rich in oil, which is 
expressed and used for many purposes. The solid kernel weighs, 
when fresh, about i lb., and has the following composition : — 

Case 64. 



Water - 
Albumen, &c. 
Oil 

Sugar, &c. 
Cellulose 
Mineral matter 



100 parts. 


In 1 lb. 




oz. gr. 


46*6 


7 200 


5'5 


•- ° 335 


35*9 


5 325 


8-i 


1 130 


2-9 


203 


I'O 


70 



For 1 part of flesh-formers in this kernel there are about 
15 parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of coco-nut kernel could form, at the utmost, 
about 7/% oz. of the dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 



Dika Bread, 
(Maiigifera gabonensis.') 

Case 64. The food known as dika bread is made from the 
fruit of a tree belonging to the Cashew-nut Order. This tree 
grows in profusion on the west coast of Africa, from Sierra 
Leone to the Gaboon : it is nearly related to the mango-tree 
of India. 

The fruit from which dika bread is made is about the size of 
a swan's egg. It contains a large white almond-shaped kernel. 



In ioo parts. 


In i lb. 




oz. gr. 


5*o • 


o 35o 


9'5 


I 227 


7'2 


I 66 


73 -o 


1 1 298 


3-0 


210 


2-3 


161 



OILY NUTS. 131 

The bruised kernels, warmed and pressed, form the so-called dika 
bread, which is largely consumed by the natives of the Gaboon, 
who use it, when scraped or grated, in stews. 

Dika bread contains three-fourths of its weight of a solid fat- 
Its taste is said to resemble that of a mixture of roasted cocoa 
and roasted flour. 

Dika bread contains — 



Water 
Albumen 
Starch, &c. - 
Fat - 
Cellulose 
Mineral matter 



For 1 part of flesh-formers in dika bread there are 18 parts of 
heat-givers, reckoned as starch ; but it must be remembered that 
100 parts of this food contain heat-givers equal to at least 170 
parts of starch. 

One pound of dika bread might produce 1 J /> oz. of the dry 
nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

Cases 61 and 62. The names of a few other nuts remarkable for their 
richness in oil are given below : — 

Brazil-nuts, seeds of Bertholletia excelsa. 

Sapucaia-nuts, seeds of Lecythis zabucaijo, and other species. 

Double Coco-nuts, Loidicea seychellarum. 

Palm-nut, Elais guinensis. 

Candle-nut, seeds of Aleurites triloba. 



K 2 



132 MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCE. 



PART III.-ANIMAL FOODS. 



In the various parts of animals, and in the products of animal 
origin which are used as food for man, there are present many 
kinds of nutrients identical, or practically identical, with those 
found in vegetables. In both kingdoms albuminoids, oil of 
fat, and phosphates and potash salts abound. But, on the 
other hand, neither starch nor cellulose occurs in animal foods, 
while sugar is generally absent, or else exists in mere traces, 
with the solitary exception of milk. Yet there are some sub- 
stances which are distinctive of animal tissues, not occurring at 
all in plants. Such are the ossein of bones, the cartilagin of 
cartilages, and the similar nitrogenous compounds of connective 
tissue and skin. Add to these the haemoglobin of the blood, 
and some of the rarer and less thoroughly understood con- 
stituents of the brain and bile, and we have the chief distinctive 
compounds of animal structures. It will be seen further on 
that animal foods are usually richer in nitrogenous matters and 
in fat than vegetable foods ; and also, that on the average, they 
contain a smaller percentage of water, when the comparison is 
made with materials in the fresh state. 

§ i. — Milk and Dairy Produce. 

As the natural food of the young of the mammalia, it is 
found that milk may be regarded as a model food. It furnishes 



MILK. 



*33 



all the nutrients required by the growing immature animal; and 
it furnishes these nutrients in due proportion. 

Cows' milk is nearly opaque under ordinary conditions of 
light • it has a faint tinge of straw-yellow, which becomes 
more marked when the animal has abundance of green food. 
Milk has a soft, slightly sweet taste, it has also a faint animal 
odour when warm and fresh. When milk is allowed to stand 
some time the first change which occurs is the rising of the cream, 
owing to the lower specific gravity of the globules of milk-fat, 
which at first are scattered uniformly through the milk. These 
minute globules — easily seen under the microscope — are the 
main cause of the white opacity of milk ; but there are also 
many still more minute globules of casein, the chief nitrogenous 
nutrient of milk. The amount of cream which rises depends 
upon many conditions. The first of these is the richness of 
the milk in the milk-fat ; other conditions are : temperature — a 
low temperature being favourable to the separation of the cream 
— a considerable bulk of liquid, a wide vessel, and complete 
freedom from agitation, are also favourable conditions. The 
chief losses which milk suffers when skimmed are the removal 
of most of the fat, and about one-sixth of the casein. 

The next change which milk suffers on keeping is that of 
turning sour. This occurs specially in hot weather, and first 
affects milk which has not been kept in clean vessels and in pure 
air. The souring of milk, however brought about, is marked by 
the presence of an acid — lactic acid, which is formed from the 
peculiar sugar of milk known as lactose. It may be retarded by 
the addition of a little carbonate of soda, or, as has been recently 
discovered, by a small quantity of boracic acid. As casein is 
separated from solutions by lactic acid, as well as by nearly all 
other acids, milk which has turned ceases to be of uniform 
appearance and opacity. Curds separate — these curds consist- 
ing of casein, but entangling also, as the substance becomes 
insoluble, much of the milk-fat and of the phosphates. This 



334 COWS' MILK. 

separation of curds is aided by heat. The liquor in which they 
float — the serum of milk, or whey — contains about one-fourth of 
the nitrogenous matter of the milk, all its sugar, and some of its 
mineral matter. 

Case 65. The chief constituents of milk — whether cows' milk, 
human milk, goats' milk, asses' milk, or the secretion of other 
mammals — are casein, lactose, or sugar of milk, milk-fat, and 
phosphates. The nature and variations in composition of cows' 
milk are the most important part of the chemical study of this 
subject. Cows' milk, from a herd of healthy animals properly 
fed, presents a remarkable uniformity of composition. But the 
total amount of nutrients in it will vary within certain rather 
narrow limits with the following circumstances. Morning milk 
will often be poorer in total solids than evening milk; much 
watery food, as brewers' grains, &c, will impoverish the milk; a 
small daily supply of oil-cake will add about 1 per cent, to the 
total solids of milk ; milk from cows pastured upon poor and 
overstocked land will be poor in quality and reduced in quantity ; 
milk drawn last from the udder — the "stoppings" — will be 
richest, especially in cream, and consequently m milk-fat or 
butter. The following may be taken as the average composition 
of cows' milk : — 



'.n 100 parts. 

86-3 ... 


In 1 pint, 
oz. gr. 

17 330 


4-1 


O 370 


37 


333 


5-1 


1 22 


o-8 


72 



Water - - - 

Casein and other albuminoids 

Milk-fat - 

Lactose, or milk-sugar - 

Mineral matter 



Thus the total solids of milk amount to 137 per cent. ; the 
solids, other than fat, being 10 per cent. It is very rare to find 
genuine and healthy milk showing a percentage lower than 9 of 
solids not fat, but some instances have been recorded where 
these constituents were found to be as low as 8}{ per cent. ; 
but in these cases the food of the cows must have been deficient 
in solid nutrients, or very watery. The ratio of flesh-formers 



ASSES' MILK, ETC. 135 

to heat-givers, reckoned as starch, in average cows' milk is as 
1 to 3 ji 

One pint of cows' milk weighs about 1 lb. 4^ oz. : if one 
pound of milk be digested and oxidized in the body, it is 
capable of yielding a force equal to 390 tons raised 1 ft. 
high. The greatest amount of external work which it could 
enable a man to perform is 78 tons raised 1 ft. high. One 
pound of milk can produce at the most about ^ oz. of the 
dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

So far cows' milk only has been considered. Now we may 
introduce the milk of other animals, comparing the composition 
of the most important kinds. 

Case 65. Human Milk. — The milk of woman is less rich in 
solids generally, and in milk-fat and casein specially, than cows' 
milk. The latter requires the addition to each pint of about 
10 oz. of warm water, and of about 1^ oz. of sugar (pre- 
ferably milk-sugar), in order that it may approach human milk 
in composition. The following figures show the average 
composition of human milk : — 



Water 

Casein and other albuminoids 
Milk-fat - 

Lactose, or milk-sugar - 
Mineral matter - 



n 100 parts. 


In 


1 pint. 




oz. 


gr. 


89-0 


18 


I46 


i-6 


O 


I44 


2-3 


O 


207 


6-9 ... 


I 


184 


0'2 


O 


18 



The average' specific gravity of human milk is 1031. The ratio 
of flesh-formers to heat-givers, reckoned as starch, is as 1 to 7. 

Asses' milk, goats' milk, &c. — The average composition of 
the milk of several other animals is shown in the following 
table : — 

Constituents of Milks (in 100 parts). 



Ass. 


Mare. 


Goat. 


Sheep. 


Pig- 


Water - - 887 


.. 89-8 . 


. 864 . 


. 8 3 -8 . 


. 84-8 


Casein, &c. - 24 


2'I 


. 4-3 • 


. 5-8 ■ 


4'3 


Milk-fat - - 1*5 


i'6 . 


4'2 • 


• 4'8 . 


5-0 


Milk-sugar - 7*1 


6-i . 


4'i • 


. 4'8 . 


5*1 


Mineral matter 0*3 


0-4 . 


o*5 . 


o-8 .. 


o-8 



136 CREAM. 

In Sweden, Norway, and Denmark sheep's milk is used ; in 
Switzerland, much goats' milk ; in Tartary, mares' milk ; camels' 
milk amongst the Arabs, and reindeer's milk in Lapland. In 
many of these countries milk, from one source or another, forms 
a very important part of the food, not only of children, but of 
adults, and a much greater quantity is consumed than is the case 
with the labouring classes in the British Isles. There are many 
parts of the rural districts of England where milk is seldom seen, 
not being used generally even with tea. It is consumed more 
extensively in Ireland than in England, in proportion to the 
population. 

In Tartary, mares' milk is allowed to ferment, whereby 
alcohol and carbonic acid gas are formed from some of the sugar 
present; the casein separates at the same time in curds. Such 
fermented milk is called koumiss, and is found to be a wholesome 
and generally nutritious food. It is said to possess even some 
special value in consumption. An imitation of it is prepared in 
London from sweetened cows' milk. 



Cream. 

The cream 1 which rises from cows' milk when the liquid is 
cooled and at rest, is not constant in amount or composition. 
If water be added to milk the cream rises more quickly, but 
is not increased in absolute amount. The cream usually 
measures 12 per cent., or ranges within 10 and 15 in average 

Case 65. samples of milk — the milk being placed in tubes 
half-an-inch in diameter, where it remains twenty hours before 
the degrees occupied by the cream are read off. Some notion 
of the average composition of cream may be gathered from 
the following analysis, but the range of variation is great, 
the water alone varying between 45 and 65. 



CONDENSED MILK. 137 

Constituents of Cream. 

In 100 parts. 

Water - 55*0 

Casein ---------- 6'o 

Milk-fat - 36-3 

Milk-sugar 2 '5 

Mineral matter o\2 

Skim Milk. 

When the cream which has risen on milk is removed, the 
liquid which remains is poorer in milk-fat and in total solids, but 
its percentage of milk-sugar is increased. It is a light and 
digestible food, but the ratio between its flesh-forming and heat- 
giving nutrients is different from that of fresh milk, the rieat-givers 
being much lower. Its composition will vary much according to 
the extent to which the cream has risen and been removed. The 
following is an analysis of skim milk : — 



Composition of Skim Milk. 

In ioo parts. 

Water 89-0 

Casein 4-3 

Milk-fat •' 0*4 

Milk-sugar 5-5 

Mineral matter - o'8 



Preserved and Condensed Milk. 

Case 65. Although there are several ways of treating milk so 
that it may be preserved sweet and wholesome for some time, 
or reproduced for use very easily and simply, yet there is but one 
preparation of this kind which is extensively used. This is called 
condensed milk ; but in reality the milk has not only been con- 
densed by the removal of a large proportion of its original water, 
but it has received a considerable addition of cane-sugar, to pre- 
serve it. Thus it happens that this condensed milk, or preserved 



138 ADULTERATION OF MILK. 

milk, cannot take the place of milk as a model food, the proportion 
of heat-givers to flesh-formers being too high. Preserved milk is 
generally prepared by evaporating milk, after the addition of cane- 
sugar, till it acquires a thick consistence. The pale straw-coloured 
sirup is poured into tins, which are then closed from the air by 
soldering. During evaporation some of the fatty matter is dissi- 
pated along with the vapour of water. The milk presents these 
results on analysis : — 

Composition of Preserved Milk. 

In ioo parts. 

Water .- 24*0 

Casein - - 15*2 

Milk-fat - - - - - 1 1 '5 

Milk-sugar - - - 177 

Cane-sugar- - - - - - - - -27 '6 

Mineral matter 2*o 

For 1 part of flesh-formers in this preserved milk there are 6 
parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

Adulteration of Milk. 

Case 66. The removal of cream and the addition of water 
are the only ways in which milk is commonly impoverished. 
The removal of cream shows itself in the thinner and less opaque 
appearance of the milk ; the addition of water produces the same 
effect. As milk-fat, the chief part of cream, is lighter than water, 
its partial removal from the milk makes the specific gravity of the 
remaining milk greater : by the subsequent addition of water the 
specific gravity may be lowered down to that of the original milk. 
Thus it is clear that the specific gravity of milk, taken alone, is 
valueless as a test of its quality. The indications of the "gravity 
lactometer" should be combined with the use of a set of gra- 
duated tubes in which to ascertain the number of measures of 
cream which rise from 100 measures of milk in 24 hodrs. And 
it is also advisable to ascertain the opacity of the sample by 
means of the lactoscope. Chemical analysis, of course, affords a 



BUTTER. 139 

more complete proof of the sophistication of milk. The total 
solids, and also the solids not fat, should be ascertained. A 
hundred grains of milk should leave, when carefully dried up, 
from 12 to 14 grains of solid substance, including milk-fat, casein, 
milk-sugar, salts, &c. ; and the solids other than fat ought to 
amount to 9 or 10 grains. 

It has been argued that the removal of cream from, and the 
addition of water to milk, are not adulterations injurious to health. 
As, however, these operations lower the feeding value of the milk 
considerably, and also seriously alter the relation between the 
heat-givers and flesh-formers of this model food, the above posi- 
tion cannot be maintained. It must also be borne in mind that 
there are many children whose daily allowance of milk, supposing 
it to be of good quality, barely suffices to sustain life : when this 
milk has been lowered by one-fourth or one-third of its original 
feeding value, it is not difficult to foretell the results. 

The statements that chalk, brains, gypsum, &c, are used to 
thicken milk are almost entirely devoid of foundation. 

Milk has sometimes been the means of spreading disease, 
either through its direct contamination with the specific poison 
of disease during the milking of the cows, or by means of the 
water used in rinsing the vessels employed, or in diluting the 
milk. The milk itself is sometimes unwholesome from the 
outset, owing to the unhealthy condition of the cow. 

Butter. 

Although butter consists chiefly of milk-fat, yet it contains by 
no means inconsiderable quantities of the other constituents of 
milk. It may be obtained from cream most readily, but also by 
the direct churning of milk. Butter made from sweet cream has 
a more pleasant taste and keeps good longer than that made from 
sour cream : this difference is caused mainly by the presence of 
much casein or curd in the butter from sour cream. 



146 BUTTER. 

Much butter is now made in factories, in the United States of 
America, in Sweden, and elsewhere. By scrupulous attention to 
the purity and healthiness of the milk received, to the absolute 
cleanliness of the vessels used, and to the temperature and other 
conditions essential for a successful result, an excellent quality of 
butter is uniformly produced. The exact temperature, both in 
the rising of the cream and during the churning process, is 
always maintained ; ice and currents of warm water being used 
as required. The taint, or unpleasant and peculiar taste which 
so much butter possesses, can be avoided when all necessary 
precautions are taken to prevent the access of any kind of 
odorous vapours to the milk or cream. Nothing is so strongly 
absorptive of odours or volatile flavours as butter. It absorbs 
and retains the vapours from cheese, from meat, and especially 
from every kind of decaying vegetable or animal matter. If 
improper or strongly-flavoured food has been given to the cows, 
it is in the butter made from the milk that the taste of that food 
will be most clearly perceived. 

The best temperature for churning lies between 57 ° and 61 ° 
Fah. : 6o° is a fair degree of heat. Sometimes cream is heated 
to a much higher temperature first — say 180 Fah. — and then 
cooled down to 6o° Fah. before being churned. Butter thus 
made keeps well. It is generally considered that 1 lb. of butter 
can be made from 23 pints of milk. 

Butter always has some salt added to it : this salt must be 
quite pure. If it be not free from magnesium compounds, it will 
give a bitter taste to the butter. Even fresh butter has some salt 
in it — from ^ to 2 parts in the 100. Salt butter ought not to 
contain as much as 8 per cent., but more has been found in 
inferior samples. If butter is to be kept some time or exported, 
it receives, besides salt (2 to 5 per cent.), a small addition of 
sugar — not, however, more than 8 oz. to the hundredweight. 

The purity and goodness of butter can be ascertained by 
means of the microscope, chemical analysis, and certain special 



BUTTER. 141 

tests of melting points and specific gravity. But these tests 
cannot be applied except by experienced analysts. Still it is easy 
to learn a good deal about some of the adulterations practised on 
butter, by simply melting a portion of it in a glass tube plunged in 
hot water. After a time the water, the curd, or casein, and the 
true butter, or milk-fat, separate into layers. The water remains 
lowest : on its surface, and mingled with a portion of the melted 
fat, lies the curd ; while the remainder of the fat constitutes a 
layer resembling oil, and remaining at the top. Now, as there 
should not be more than 8 to 13 per cent, of water in good 
butter, the watery layer should not exceed in volume one-eighth 
of the whole butter. Nor should the casein, or curd, be very 
conspicuous. Water has, however, been found to the extent of 
30 per cent, or more in some samples of butter, while salt often 
occurs also in great excess. Unfortunately, also, imitations of 
butter are now made on a large scale, and may be used to 
adulterate butter without being easily recognised. If they are 
sold under the names of " butterine " and " oleo-margarine," pur- 
chasers know that they are not buying butter, though they may 
be purchasing a wholesome and cheap substitute for it. But 
these purified fats (bone-fat, horse-fat, &c.) are sometimes imported 
into England as Brittany or Normandy butter, and are also used 
for the fraudulent sophistication of genuine butter. The flavour 
of the true product is given to them by working them up with 
butter-milk, and it is difficult to recognise their origin. 

Case 67. We cannot give an exact analysis of fresh butter which 
shall fully represent its components ; but we may take the follow- 
ing figures as showing the average proportions of its most 
important constituents when of good quality : — 



Water - 
Casein - 
Milk-fat - 
Milk-sugar 
Common salt 



In 100 parts. 
IO'O 


In 1 lb. 
oz. gr. 
I 262 


I'O 


O 70 


877 .. 


14 14 


0-3 


O 21 


I'O 


O 70 



142 CHEESE. 

It is scarcely necessary to say that butter contains too small a 
quantity of flesh-forming material for it to be reckoned in com- 
parison with its high amount of heat-giving substance. If we 
change the latter into the corresponding amount of starch, it will 
be found that i lb. of butter corresponds to 2 I / 10 lb. of starch. 



Cheese. 

The manufacture of cheese depends upon the peculiar pro- 
perty possessed by casein of being curdled by acids. On the 
addition of an acid to milk, the casein present, which constitutes 
three-fourths of the nitrogenous matter present, is separated from 
the liquid, which is straightway resolved into a mixture of irregular 
masses of separated casein, in which most of the globules of 
milk-fat are entangled, with a slightly cloudy liquid called 
whey, which holds the milk-sugar in solution, as well as some 
nitrogenous matter in the form of albumen and lacto-protein. 
This separation of milk into curds and whey is the first step in the 
preparation of cheese. It is usually made to occur, not through 
the use of an ordinary acid, but by means of rennet. Rennet is: 
prepared from the fourth stomach of the calf, by first cleansing 
the stomach and the curd contained therein, and then leaving 
some brine in. contact with its lining membrane for a few days. 
The salt liquid will thus acquire very active properties, so that a 
small quantity will curdle a large bulk of milk. Before adding the 
rennet, the milk is warmed to a temperature which varies accord- 
ing to the quality of cheese to be made. Generally, however, in 
cheese factories, where the regulations as to temperature are 
carefully carried out, the milk is heated to 84 Fah., then the 
rennet is added, and after the curd has been once cut, the heat is 
raised to 98 : at this stage the complete souring of 'the mass 
takes place. The subsequent treatment of the curd, and the 
pressing and ripening of the shaped cheeses, cannot be described 



CHEESE. 143 

here. In the cheese factories which are so numerous in the 
United States, and which are being established in England also, 
the whole process of cheese manufacture is carried out very 
quickly and uniformly. In this country factory cheese is of 
more uniformly good quality, and fetches a higher price, than the 
produce of the ordinary dairies of the several districts in which 
both kinds of cheese are made and can be compared. Some idea 
of the quantity of cheese made in factories in the United States 
may be gathered from the statement that the exports of this 
cheese from New York amounted in 1874 to nearly 97,000,000 lb., 
most of this coming to England. There are no less than 50a 
cheese factories in the State of New York. 
There are three chief kinds of cheese : 

Whole-milk cheese, 
Skim-milk cheese, 
Cream cheese, 

but these sorts pass by insensible gradations from one to the 
other. So-called whole-milk cheeses are often produced in dairies 
where some small quantity of butter is also made, and where 
some cream is abstracted from the the milk. If evening milk 
be skimmed, and then mixed with the morning milk, half-skim 
cheese will be the product. The skimming of milk, too, may be 
carried out so completely as to leave very little milk-fat for the 
cheese, or else it may be done so imperfectly as to affect very 
slightly the richness of the product. Cream cheese, also, is very 
variable in composition, according to the quantity of cream which 
is added to the milk used for its production. Neufchatel and 
some other soft kinds of cream cheese are very rich in milk-fat. 
Stilton cheese contains a smaller proportion of this constituent, 
but still is much richer than Cheddar cheese, which generally 
represents the average composition of a whole-milk cheese made 
from rich milk. Cheshire, and single and double Gloucester 
cheese show a slight reduction in the proportion of their milk-fat. 



i 4 4 CHEESE. 

American cheese is generally lower still in its proportion of this 
ingredient, while Dutch cheese is a good illustration of a true 
skim-milk cheese. It may be stated generally that cream cheese 
contains less water and casein and more fat than whole-milk or 
skim-milk cheese ; that whole-milk cheeses are made up of about 
equal proportions of milk-fat, casein, and water ; and that skim- 
milk cheeses contain less fat but more water than either of the 
other sorts. But it must be recollected that these observations 
apply to those cheeses which are eaten in a ripened and 
hardened condition ; for in many newly-made cream cheeses the 
water may amount to 3 / s ths or more of the whole weight of the 
cheese. 

Case 6 7 . The chief constituents of a fair sample of double 
Gloucester cheese are shown in the following analysis : — 



Water - 
Casein - 
Milk-fat - 
Milk-sugar 
Phosphates 
Common salt 



100 parts. 


In 


ilb. 




oz. 


gr. 


343 


5 


214 


29-2 


4 


294 


29*6 


4 


322 


2'0 





140 


3' 1 





217 


i-8 





126 



For 1 part of flesh-formers in the above kind of cheese there 
are little more than 2 j4 parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 

One pound of this cheese could form nearly 5 oz. of the 
dry nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh. 

Cheese is naturally of a pale yellow or straw colour. The 
darker yellow and orange hues which it often shows are due to 
the colouring matter known as Arnatto or Annatto. This dye 
is obtained from the pulp in which the seeds of Bixa Orellana, 
a small South American tree, are embedded. Arnatto is too 
often adulterated, sometimes with injurious substances. It is 
introduced into the heated milk, before the addition t)f rennet, 
in making cheese. Butter also is often coloured by it ; and it 
has been found in milk and cream. It is to be regretted that 



CHEESE. 145 

popular prejudice still demands a high colour in cheese, as the 
entire abandonment of the use of annatto is very desirable ; its 
employment introduces impurities into the cheese, and does not 
improve the flavour in any way. 

The digestibility of cheese varies with its texture, its age, 
and its composition. Generally speaking, it cannot be said to 
be easily attacked by the gastric and intestinal secretions. But 
a moist, crumbly cheese, fairly rich in fat, is more rapidly and 
completely digested than the drier and more nitrogenous skim, 
milk kinds. By various modes of preparation, such as grating 
and admixture with starchy matters, cheese may be made more 
useful and available for food. It should be eaten along with 
bread, rice, or other kinds of food rich in heat-giving nutrients, in 
which cheese is deficient. It requires some time before persons 
unaccustomed to eat cheese as a substantive article of the daily 
diet can derive full advantage from its nutritive properties. The 
presence of much bone-forming material in cheese is worthy of 
remark. 

Some kinds of cheese, especially those which contain most 
milk-fat, and are not of a very close texture, acquire a strong 
odour and flavour by keeping. Both the casein and the milk-fat 
are then partly decomposed, the former yielding ammonia and 
ammonium sulphide, and the latter giving rise to butyric, caproic, 
and other acids. The blue mould, or mildew, which makes its 
appearance in old and very ripe cheeses, such as Stilton, is a 
vegetable fungoid growth. Cheeses are also liable to the attacks 
of minute animals. The common cheese-mite is Acarus domes ft'cus; 
the cheese-fly, Piophilus casei, deposits its eggs in the cheese, 
where they reach the larval stage, becoming the cheese-maggots 
known as "jumpers." It is scarcely necessary to state that all 
these forms of animal and vegetable existence cause a con- 
siderable consumption of the food-substance of the cheese on 
which they live, lowering its nutritive value. Usually, however, 
the decayed cheeses to which these remarks apply are consumed 

L 



146 EGGS. 

in small quantities as food-adjuncts merely, on account of their 
rich flavour, or supposed power of aiding in the digestion of 
other articles of food.* 



§ 2. — Eggs. 

Eggs of course contain all the necessary constituents of food. 
Those of different kinds of birds, especially of the common hen, 
are largely consumed by man. 

A bird's egg consists of several parts, which may be briefly 
comprised under the three terms of shell, white, and yolk. The 
shell consists mainly of earthy or mineral matter ; when free from 
moisture it contains in 100 parts about 91 parts of carbonate of 
lime, 6 of phosphate of lime, and 3 of nitrogenous organic matter. 
Inside the shell there is a delicate membrane, which forms a kind 
of sac for the white of the egg. This part consists of a thick, 
ropy liquid, nearly transparent, and of a very pale straw tint, or 
almost colourless, when fresh, but becoming quite white, opaque, 
and nearly solid when sufficiently heated. These changes are 
due to the coagulation of the substance called albumen, which is 
contained in a soluble state in the unchanged white of the egg, 
but becomes insoluble on being boiled. The dissolved albumen 
occurs in large, thin, membranous cells in the white. Within the 
white lies the yolk, enclosed in a thin membrane, and tethered by 
two cords (chalazcB) to the membranes of the white. The yolk is 
yellow, and nearly opaque. 

Case 68. In a very large hen's egg, weighing 1,000 grains (rather 
over 2% oz.), the shell and membranes will weigh about 100 gr., 
the white about 610 gr., and the yolk about 290 gr. The 
average weight of a hen's egg, shell and contents, is about 1^ oz. 
It becomes rather lighter by being boiled, losing a little water. 

* Some specimens of different kinds of cheese, &c, will be found in 
Case 67. 



£GGS. 147 

The white of a hen's egg has about the following composition : — 

_ TT In 100 parts. 

Water 84*8 

Albumen ____i2-o 

Fat, sugar, extractives, and membranes ... - 2 -o 

Mineral matter I -2 



The yolk of a hen's egg shows a much greater degree of 
richness than the white. It contains — 



Water 



In 100 parts. 
51*5 



Casein and albumen - - - - - - - - 15*0 

Oil and fat 30*0 

Pigment, extractives, &c. 2'i 

Mineral matter - 1*4 

The mineral matter of the contents of hens' eggs, though 
small in quantity, is rich in quality, consisting, as it does, mainly 
of phosphates of lime, potash, soda, magnesia, and iron. 

The mixed whites and yolks of hens' eggs (the shells being 
excluded) contain — 



Water 

Albumen and casein 

Oil and fat - 

Membranes and extractives - 

Mineral matter 



In 100 parts. 


In 1 lb. 




oz. gr. 


717 


II 207 


I4*0 


2 I05 


11 *o 


I 332 


2'0 


O I40 


i-3 


O 91 



Eggs are very nutritious articles of food. They contain about 
as much flesh-forming and heat-giving substances as an equal 
weight of butchers' meat. For 1 part of flesh-formers present in 
them there are nearly 2 parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch. 
One pound of the mixed yolks and whites can produce at the 
most a little more than 2 oz. of the dry nitrogenous substance 
of muscle or flesh. 

One pound of hard-boiled eggs, if completely oxidized, could 
set free a force equal to 1,415 tons raised 1 ft. high. The greatest 
amount of work outside the body which it could enable a man to 

l 2 



148 BUTCHERS' MEAT. 

perform is 283 tons raised 1 ft. high. The remainder of the 
stored-up force in this amount of food will be in part unexpended, 
but much of it will be used in keeping up the heat and internal 
activity of the body, and in the repair of its tissues. 

One pound of white of egg can set free force equal to no more 
than 357 tons raised 1 ft. high, and can enable a man to perform 
external work equal to only 71 tons raised 1 ft. high, whilst 1 lb. 
of yolk of egg can set free force equal to 2,051 tons raised 
1 ft. high, and could enable a man to perform external work 
equal to the raising of 410 tons 1 ft. high. 

The number of eggs imported into Great Britain is enormous. 
During the first quarter of 1876 it was something like 17^ 
millions. It has been calculated that 18 eggs would contain an 
amount of flesh-forming substance and of other nutrients suffi- 
cient for the various needs of life in an adult man for one day. 
It would be necessary, in order to provide the same amount of 
albumen from such a fruit as the pear to consume no less than 
70 lb. It would be difficult to find a more striking illustration 
than this of the concentrated character, so far as nitrogenous or 
flesh-forming substance is concerned, of the egg. 



§ 3. — Butchers' Meat. 

The variations in composition between different joints from 
the same animal are considerable. Add to this the fact that 
there are numerous additional differences, due to. peculiarities 
of individual animals, to race, to age, and to the modes and 
materials of feeding, and we shall find it easy to account for 
the great discrepancies between different analyses of the same 
kind of meat. The variations in the amount of fat are the 
most conspicuous, and influence, of course, the proportions of 
other meat-components greatly. A piece of meat may con- 



BUTCHERS' MEAT. 149 

tain but 5 per cent, of fat, when it will be found to possess 
70 per cent, or perhaps 75 per cent, of water. But should 
50 per cent, of fat be present (a fat mutton or pork chop may- 
contain more) then the water may not be higher than 38 — the 
rule being, the more fat the less water. If, then, nitrogenous 
or flesh-forming material be wanted, the leanest meat will furnish 
this, along with a considerably greater proportion of saline or 
mineral matter than is found in fat meat. Where heat-givers and 
force-producers are in demand, as in cold countries, and during 
fairly hard work, then the fatter meats and bacon are at once 
more suitable and more economical. 

There are some signs by which the good quality of butchers' 
meat may be generally judged. Amongst these, in the case of 
mutton and beef, we may name a rich, bright, and uniform 
colour, and a firmness of texture, quite free from flabbiness, 
though moderately soft and elastic. Damp and clammy meat? 
with a tendency to exude moisture is generally unwholesome. 
Very young meat, from animals forced to a large size in a very 
short time, is neither agreeable in taste, nor easily digested. 
The rapid rearing and fattening of animals, though profitable to 
the farmer, produces a poor and inferior quality of meat. The 
flesh, or true muscular fibre, is not properly developed, while the 
connective and other gelatinous tissues are present in super- 
abundant proportion. 

Meat is tender, if properly cooked, before the rigor mortis 
has set in, but it must be kept some days after that rigidity of 
the muscles has occurred if it be required to possess this 
valuable quality. Still, it is better for meat to be somewhat tough 
rather than unwholesome owing to the commencement of putre- 
faction, which so readily occurs in hot weather. 

A word should be said here concerning measly and braxy 
meat.* The former condition, when well marked, is easily 

* For a model of a piece of measly pork, see Case 71. 



i 5 o BUTCHERS' MEAT. 

detected by the eye. It is caused by the presence of parasitic 
animals — species of Trichina and Cysticercus. It is believed that 
these embryonic forms of animals, in part belonging to the genus 
Tama (tapeworms, &c), are destroyed by the heat of boiling or 
roasting meat. Care should be taken to avoid imperfectly 
cooked pork, or ham, or sausages ; as well as any vegetables, as 
salad plants, which have not been thoroughly washed. Flesh- 
meat which is measly is also peculiarly liable to decomposition, 
and becomes objectionable on that score. The same may be 
said of braxy meat — the flesh of unhealthy or diseased animals 
which have been slaughtered in order to anticipate their imminent 
death, and the consequent total loss of their flesh as human food. 
Moreover, braxy meat may contain the specific poisons of various 
diseases, as well as the medicinal agents administered to the sick 
animal. 

The various processes of cooking meat influence its com- 
position and digestibility differently. Roasting before an open 
fire is far preferable to baking. If meat be boiled, it should be 
plunged in boiling water for a few minutes, and then such an 
amount of cold water added as will suffice to lower the heat of 
the water to about 170 Fah., which temperature should not be 
much exceeded during the whole time of cooking. Meat loses 
considerably both in digestibility and flavour when twice cooked. 
Salt meat is less nutritious and wholesome than fresh, except 
in the case of bacon and ham. The liquor in which mutton has 
been boiled contains valuable mineral and organic matters which 
ought not to be wasted. The liquor in which salted beef has 
been boiled is not available for food, except to a small extent, 
owing to the immense quantity of common salt which it contains. 
This salt in excess has an indirect injurious action on the human 
system, as explained on p. 24. The chemistry of those changes 
which occur during the processes of cooking cannot be dwelt upon 
here. But those changes are mainly the following : the removal of 
much water in the form of vapour and as gravy, the latter containing 



MUTTON. 151 

the soluble organic and inorganic matters of the joint. Much 
gelatin, too, is found in the gravy, this substance being produced 
from those tissues of the meat which are not true muscular fibre, 
and which are rendered soluble by a moist heat. Much fat is 
melted out of the adipose tissue, and certain slightly carbonised 
matters, or dark-coloured substances, are formed out of the 
carbonaceous and nitrogenous constituents of the meat. To 
these dark-coloured materials, which are but little understood, 
the aroma, or flavour and odour, of a roasted joint are greatly 
due. They may be compared to the similar products found in 
the crust of bread, and in baked pastry and puddings. The 
general tendency of the process of roasting meat is to render it 
more soluble, digestible, and nutritious. 

We now come to the question of the composition of the 
different kinds of meat in general use as food. Our information 
on this subject being still imperfect, it will probably be best to 
give somewhat minute details about a single kind of butchers' 
meat which we have lately submitted to special examination, and 
then to present a more general view of the composition of the 
other kinds of flesh-meat. 

Case 69. A mutton-chop shall be the subject of our illustration. 
It contained, when quite fresh, a proportion of bone amounting to 
8 per cent. — perhaps a rather lower proportion than usual. 
When submitted to careful analysis, it gave the following results 
when the flesh and fat were taken together in the fresh state for 
.analysis : — 



Water - 
Albumen 

Fibrin (true muscle) 
Ossein-like substances 
Fat ... 

Organic extractives - 
Mineral matters 
Other substances 



100 parts. 
44'I 


In 1 lb. 
oz. gr. 

7 24 


17 


O 119 


5'9 

I "2 


O 413 
O 84 


42*0 

i-8 


.. 6 315 
126 


i-o 


70 


2 -3 


161 



T52 MUTTON. 

The bone of this mutton-chop was analysed, and gave the 
following results : — 



In ioo parts. 


In 1 lb. 


32-2 


oz. gr. 

5 66 


l8 7 • 


2 434 


9-0 


I 193 


34"i 


5 200 


6-o 


420 



Water ... 
Ossein - 

Fat ... 

Phosphate of lime - 
Carbonate of lime, &c. 



A recently-published analysis of a mutton-chop described as 
" lean " showed very different results to those we have given 
above. " The more lean, the more water ; " and consequently 
the number representing the percentage of water was 75*5; the 
fat was set down as 8'6 ; the albuminoids as io # 5 ; the ossein-like 
substances as yg ; and the mineral matter as 3-5. 

To show the influence of cooking upon a mutton-chop, we 
may cite two analyses, in one of which (a) the gravy and dripping 
were carefully preserved and analysed with the lean cooked meat 
of the chop ; while in the other case (b) they were excluded : 

In 100 parts. 

a b 

Water - - 54*0 ... 51*6 

Nitrogenous matter - - - - - 27*6 ... 36 '6 

Fat 15-4 ... 9-4 

Mineral matter 3"o- ... I "2 

Other substances - - - - - — ... I '2 



The useful lessons to be drawn from the above analyses will 
be best studied by a reference to the composition and properties 
of the several nutrients, as described in the First Part of the 
present Handbook ; it would require too much space to enlarge 
upon these matters here. 

Cases 69 & 70. Before giving some analyses of other kinds of meat, 
it would be well to remind our readers of what was said .on p. 148 
about the great variation in composition which different animals 
and parts of animals present. Thus, the following figures must not 



MEAT AS A FORCE-PRODUCER. 153 

be looked upon as representing a series of standards. They have 
been drawn up from the numerous analyses* (of the carcasses of 
various animals) which have been carried out by Messrs. Lawes 
and Gilbert. We quote them from the former " Inventory of 
the Food Collection." 

The Composition of i lb. of 



Beef. 


Mutton. 


Pork. 


Veal. 


Lamb- 


oz. gr. 


oz. gr. 


oz. gr. 


oz. gr. 


oz. gr. 


Water - - 80. 


. 7 16 . 


. 6 69 . 


.IO O . 


• 8 44 


Albuminoids - 1 122 . 


. 385 . 


• 315 . 


. I 199 . 


. 360 


Ossein-like substances, 1 62 . 


• • 1 52 • 


.-. 385 . 


. I 82 . 


. 400 


Fat - - - 4 340 . 


. 6 176 . 


.80. 


. 2 28l . 


• 5 263 


Mineral matter - 350 . 


.. 245 . 


.. 105 . 


• O 312 . 


.. 244. 



According to Frankland, 1 lb. of the lean of beef, if digested 
and oxidized in the body, might produce an amount of force 
equal to 885 tons raised 1 ft. high. The greatest amount of 
external work which it could enable a man to perform is 1 7 7 ton& 
raised 1 ft. high. One pound of lean mutton-chop can produce at 
the utmost rather less than 2 oz. of the dry nitrogenous substance 
of muscle or flesh, that is, assuming the analysis by Mene given 
on p. 152 to be a fair representation of this article of food. 

The following further data relate to other meats, &c, as force- 
producers, the higher figures representing the total amount of 
force capable of being set free by the digestion and oxidation 
within the body of those animal foods, and the lower numbers 
representing the force available for external work — both in tons, 
raised 1 ft. hisrh, or " foot-tons : " — 



'S A 



Foot-tons. 
I lb. of beef fat - - - 5,626 ... 1,125 

1 lb. of lean of veal - 726 ... 145 

I lb. of boiled ham - - - 1,041 ... 208 



* A series of photographs of French breeds of oxen, sheep, and pigs; 
will be found in the Collection ; also a series of stuffed and mounted heads 
of some of the chief breeds of British oxen. A head of the eland, a large 
kind of antelope, is also shown. This African animal has been successfully 
bred in England. Its flesh is tender and of excellent flavour. 



i54 



TRIPE AND SWEETBREAD. 



This seems the proper place to introduce a word or two con- 
cerning some of the internal parts of animals (or viscera) which 
are consumed as food. These often require careful cleansing 
and thorough cooking, and are more likely to be diseased than 
the muscular flesh. In most cases they are of very close texture, 
and they do not always contain the same kinds of nutritive 
nitrogenous matters as are present in ordinary meat. 

Calves' Liver, according to Payen's analysis, contains the 
following proportions of its constituents : — 

In ioo parts. 

Water 72*3 

Nitrogenous matter - - - - - 20 ' I 

Fat, &c - - 6-1 

Mineral matter 1 "5 

Here the ratio of flesh-formers to heat-givers, reckoned as 
starch, is as 1 to 7-ioths — a proportion which shows the pro- 
priety of the use of fatty or starchy food with liver, as illustrated 
in the familiar dish of " liver and bacon." 

Case 70. Tripe is the cleansed paunch or first portion of the 
ruminant stomach of the ox. The exact nutritive character of 
tripe is not known. It generally contains much fat. A sample 
as sold by the butcher, but freed from the lumps of fat present, 
showed the following composition : — 

In 100 parts. In 1 lb. 

oz. gr. 

Water - - - - - - - 79*5 ... 12 216 

Nitrogenous matter 10 *o ... I 262 

Fat - icro ... 1 262 

Mineral matter - - - - - 0*5 ... o 35 

These numbers show a high percentage of water and a low 
percentage of mineral matter, due to the cleansing and boiling in 
water which tripe undergoes before it is sold. 

Sweet-bread should be the thymus gland of the ox : the 
pancreas goes under the same name. Among other viscera or in- 



POULTRY AND GAME. 155 

ternal organs of animals which are eaten are the heart and the 
kidneys. Both of these organs are of very dense and firm tex- 
ture and cannot be regarded as of easy digestibility. They are 
highly nitrogenous articles of food, but the heart generally contains 
some fat. 

Case 7 i. Reference has already been made to the composition of 
bone. Blood, especially pigs' blood, is sometimes used as food in 
the form of black-pudding. It requires a considerable admixture 
of starchy and oily matter to afford a complete nourishment : it 
contains about 78 per cent, of water, the remainder being chiefly 
nitrogenous matter with some mineral salts. 

Case 71. Bullocks' tongues, horses' tongues, rein-deer tongues, 
and sheeps' tongues are commonly used as food, and are nutritious 
and digestible. Some of these kinds are dried and imported in 
that condition : these require long soaking in cold water before 
being cooked. 



§ 4. — Poultry and Game. 

One of the chief characteristics of the flesh of fowls, notably 
those which are wild, is the almost entire absence of fat. When 
much fat is present the flavour of the meat is often less delicate, 
and its digestibility, especially when roasted, decidedly difficult. 
It does not seem that game, even when " high," and therefore to 
some extent decomposed, is really unwholesome when properly 
cooked. A very large number of birds furnish food to man, in 
of F b°ird S s P u C slTa! different quarters of the globe. The flesh of those 
food, see Cases bi r d s w hich feed on grain or other vegetable pro- 
ducts is less strongly flavoured than that of carnivorous birds. A 
mere list of names of the most important kinds of poultry and 
game would not be very useful, in the absence of details con- 
cerning their relative values as food, and the chemical composition 



156 EDIBLE BIRDS' NESTS. 

of their flesh. But we give here an analysis of the flesh of the 
common fowl as representing this kind of animal food : — 

In i lb. 

oz. gr. 

Water - - - - - 12 107 

Albuminoids - -- - - 21 04 

Ossein -like substances - - - I 52 

Fat traces 

Mineral matter - - - - - 01 74 

About thirty different species of birds are commonly used as 
food in Great Britain.* 

Case 78. The flesh of the hare and the rabbit approaches 
somewhat nearly in texture and composition to that of poultry. 

We may now introduce a strange example of the out-of-the-way 
products of animal origin which have been used as food for man. 
That the eggs of birds and the flesh of birds should be so used 
is familiar enough to us, but that their nests should be regarded 
as suitable for eating, and even as a great delicacy, is certainly 
somewhat surprising. Such, however, is the case ; and we may 
therefore here give a brief account of — 



* For the place in the animal kingdom of the edible birds, see the 
diagrams, above the Cases. 

Stuffed and mounted specimens of the common pheasant, a native of 
Asia Minor ; of the ringed-pheasant, a native of China ; of the parti-coloured 
pheasant, a native of Japan ; and of varieties and hybrids of the above, are 
shown in Case 72. All the above have been introduced or successfully bred 
in this country. 

Case 73 contains specimens of the capercailzie, grouse, and ptarmigan. 

Case 74 contains a collection of specimens of native Australian waterfowl 
such as are commonly sold in the markets of Melbourne, South Australia. 

Case 75 contains specimens of some of the game-birds of Nova Scotia — 
wood-grouse, prairie-grouse, ptarmigan, and American woodcock. 

Eggs of various breeds of domestic poultry are shown in Case 68 ; also 
eggs of the swan, pheasant, pea-fowl, partridge, plover, redshank, snipe, 
pigeon, turtle-dove, heron, moorhen, guillemot, emu, and ostrich. 



REPTILES. 157 

Edible Birds' Nests. 

Case 77. Edible birds' nests may certainly rank amongst the 
curiosities of food. They are considered great delicacies in 
China, where they form part of all ceremonious feasts, being 
dissolved in soups. They reach China from the Southern Archi- 
pelago, chiefly from Java, Borneo, Celebes, and the Sulu Islands. 
It has been estimated that no less than 8,400,000 of these nests 
.are annually imported into Canton. The finest and whitest kind 
sells for as much as £$ or £6 the lb., but it requires about 
fifty nests to make up one pound. In reality these singular 
structures are rather the brackets upon which the birds afterwards 
build their nests than the nests themselves. The bird — a kind of 
swift known as the salangan (Callocaillia esailentd) — builds both 
in marine and inland caverns, first forming, mainly with its saliva, 
a number of loops, which it subsequently works up into the 
shell-shaped support for its nest. The nest itself is made of 
grass, leaves, and seaweed, but the edible bracket or support 
consists almost exclusively of the salivary secretion of the bird. 
It is a mistake to suppose it to be made of seaweed, which the 
salangan neither eats as food nor uses in the building of these 
brackets, though the nests are often made of it. The salangan 
builds and breeds four times in the year. The brackets are 
jemoved three times, the best being obtained in July and August.* 

Reptiles. 

Case 79- In this country the reptiles used as food are few in 
number. Their flesh is regarded as a luxury. It is, however, 
wholesome and digestible. The green turtle of the West Indies, 
and of some parts of the South American coast, is the best known 

* Specimens of these nest-brackets, cleaned and in their natural state, and 
of the salangan swift, are shown in Case 77. 



158 FISH. 

and most highly appreciated of the reptiles used as food. These 
animals sometimes weigh as much as 700 lb. They are 
imported alive into this country. Their flesh is the basis of 
turtle-soup. Sun-dried turtle, cut into convenient pieces for 
culinary purposes, are now received in this country from the West 
Indies and other places. They are an excellent substitute for 
live turtle. The land tortoise, which is common on the Medi- 
terranean coasts, is eaten by the inhabitants of Italy and the 
Levant. A small fresh-water turtle, the terapin, is eaten in 
America, and is imported into this country. 

A large frog (Rana escuhnta) is eaten in many parts of Europe. 
The hind legs are selected as the best part to be consumed. 
Various other reptiles are eaten in different countries — the iguana 
in Guayaquil, the tegu or tequixin in Brazil, the axolotl in Mexico, 
and the green lizard in Rome. 

§ 5.— Fish, &c. 

Cases 80 to 87. The kinds of fish commonly available for food in 
England are numerous. The muscular flesh of the same fish 
differs in different parts of the animal and in different seasons 
of the year. Those fish which are least oily and fat are the 
most wholesome; but their highly nitrogenous character demands 
the abundant use of starchy foods, in order that a due propor- 
tion of heat-givers may be consumed along with the flesh- 
formers they contain. A dry, woolly, or tough texture in 
the muscular fibre of fish is an indication of indigestibility. 
Thorough cleansing and thorough cooking of fish is essential 
to its wholesomeness. Lemon juice is one of the best sauces 
that can be used with fish : some of the compound sauces in 
vogue are of very doubtful composition and purity. The least 
oily fish are whiting. They are the most easily digested, 
especially when boiled. Flounders, soles, plaice, and several 
other kinds, are nearly equally available for the invalid. Eels, 



"\ 



FISH. 159 

salmon, herrings, and even mackerel, are far more oily and less 
digestible.* 

The published chemical analyses of fish are very discordant. 
This arises in great part from the condition of the fish varying 
at different times of the season. An analysis of a mackerel in 
good condition gave — ■ 

In 100 parts. 

Water 687 

Nitrogenous matter - - - - 13*5 

Oil or fat 12*5 

Common salt ------ 2 \2 . 

Phosphates, potash - salts, and. other 

mineral matter - - - - 3*1 ... 0217 

In the nitrogenous matter named above is included a sub- 
stance known as creatine ; it abounds in skate and cod. 

Cases 80 & 81. We quote (under all necessary reserve) the following 
figures from the former " Inventory of the Food Collection" : — 

Composition of i lb. of 



In 


lib. 


oz. 


gr. 


IO 


434 


2 


70 


2 





O 


154 



Salmon. 


Mackerel. 


Sole. 


Conger-eel. 


Pike. 


Herring. 


oz. gr. 


oz. gr. 


oz. gr. 


oz. gr. 


oz. gr. 


oz. gr. 


Water- - 12 143 . 


.. IO 374 .. 


• 13 374 


.. II 208 .. 


. 12 28l . 


.. 12 406 


Nitrogenous ^ 

matters - j 2 43 • 


- 3 387 •• 


• I 350 - 


•• 3 2 33 •• 


• 3 23 . 


.. I 270 


Fat - - 301 . 


. 1 56 .. 


. O 14 . 


.. 350 .. 


. 42 . 


. I 60 


Mineral matter 387 . 


• 57 .. 


. O I36 . 


.. 84 •• 


91 . 


• O H5 



* Mounted specimens of the common sorts of fish brought to the London 
markets are shown in Case 82. A painted plaster-cast of a full-grown salmon, 
a mounted specimen of a male salmon (Case 82A), and a set of earthenware 
troughs, to illustrate the method of artificially hatching out the ova of salmon 
and other fish, are exhibited. 

Specimens of dried fish of various kinds may be seen in Cases 83 to 8j. 
Amongst these is a collection of edible fishes from Victoria, Australia ; and 
many sorts of dried fish, &c, from the French colonies of St. Pierre, Tahiti, 
and Cochin- China. These latter specimens include capelins, herrings, cods' 
tongues, shrimps, prawns, trepangs, &c. Specimens of the Bummeloh fish of 
the Chinese Seas and Indian Ocean are also shown. These fish, known in 
Bengal as "Bombay ducks," are of delicate flavour when fresh, but by drying 
and salting acquire a very strong smell and taste. 

Diagrams presenting a tabular view of the families and orders of fishes are 
shown in the collection. 



160 OYSTERS. 

According to Frankland's experiments, the following figures 
represent the force, expressed in foot-tons, which could be liberated 
by the digestion and oxidation in the body of i lb. of whiting 
and mackerel : 



Total work. 


External work 


491 


... 98 


I. OOO 


200 



Whiting 
Mackerel 



The consumption of fish in London is very large ; the chief 
market is Billingsgate. 

Fish are preserved for subsequent use in several ways — by 
drying, by smoking, by salting, and by the use of oil. The removal 
of moisture or the exclusion of air is the chief condition of success. 
Most kinds of dried and salted fish are rendered more palatable 
and wholesome by being soaked for some hours in cold water. 
The fish which are most easily preserved are those of firm texture, 
or of moderate size, and particularly those which are naturally 
rich in oil or fat. Herrings, anchovies, pilchards or sardines, 
and salmon, are familiar examples. The dried bummeloh fish, 
known in India as " Bombay ducks," are highly esteemed. 
Caviare, the roe of the sturgeon, is generally con- 

For specimens . 

of dried fish, &c, sumed in a decomposed state, and then cannot be 

see Case 87. 

considered wholesome. Fresh caviare is a very 
different article, and does not demand an acquired taste for its 
appreciation. 

Case 88. Oysters and other molluscs may be briefly noticed here. 
Oysters are most digestible when eaten raw, much of the nitro- 
genous matter they contain being rendered tough and insoluble 
by heating. Oysters are often improved in flavour and whole- 
someness by being kept for a day in a shallow dish with some 
weak brine, a little oatmeal being given to them. Oysters con- 
tain about 14 per cent, of flesh-formers and 80 of water. Mussels 
are more frequently found in an unwholesome condition than 
oysters. 



BACON AND PRESERVED MEATS. 161 

On the continent of Europe there is one kind of snail which 
is often eaten as food. It is common in some parts of southern 
France, and is also found rather abundantly in many of the 
southern parts of England. It is called the Roman or apple 
snail [Helix pomatid). When properly cleansed and properly 
cooked it is a nutritious article of food. It can be collected only 
for a short period during the summer, but then is found in large 
numbers in some districts in Gloucestershire, Kent, and Surrey. 
It occurs abundantly on the site of many Roman stations in 
England, and is believed to have been introduced by the 
Romans. 

Cases 8 9 to 91. Lobsters and crabs are not very easy of digestion. 
The latter should be cleansed with the greatest care before being 
eaten. These Crustacea are very coarse feeders, and it is probably 
for this reason that they so frequently disagree even with healthy 
persons. Other Crustacea commonly eaten in Great Britain are 
the fresh-water cray-fish, the shrimp, and the prawn.* 

§ 6. — Bacon and Preserved Meats. 

By salting, or by the exclusion of air, many animal products 
used as food may be preserved for a long time free from decom- 
position. It is not to be supposed that no changes in com- 
position occur, but the decay to which meat of all kinds is so 
prone does not take place. In most cases the digestibility of 
the meat is not improved but rather diminished, at all events 
by salting, though this is probably not equally true of " tinning," 
and is not the case when the process of freezing is employed. 
We will first describe the salting process, as applied to pork, 
giving this instance as an illustrative example ; afterwards we 
will notice other methods of preserving meat. 

* Specimens of many different crabs, lobsters, and other Crustacea, are 
shown in Cases 89 to 92. 



i62 CURING OF BACON. 



Bacon. 



When cured, or preserved by salting and drying, and generally 
by the process of smoking in addition, pork becomes bacon. 

The preparation of bacon is now carried on very extensively 
and systematically in factories specially constructed and fitted 
up for the purpose. The following sketch may give some notion 
of the plan commonly adopted. 

After being fasted 24 hours, the pig is taken to the slaughter- 
house and killed. It is then hung up by the hind legs, singed 
by means of gas, scraped, opened, cleansed by powerful jets of 
water, and dressed. When the carcass has become cool and 
firm, which is generally the case after about 12 hours, it is 
ready for boning or cutting up. This is done by placing the 
pig on a strong table and cutting off the head close to the ears. 
The fore feet are then removed, and the hind feet so as to leave 
a shank to the ham. The carcass is then divided straight 
along the back and- the shoulder blade taken out. The sides 
are now ready for salting. Each side is laid singly on the floor 
of a cool cellar, and dressed with a mixture of saltpetre (nitrate 
of potash) and salt, 4 ounces of saltpetre being used for each 
side, together with a quantity of salt corresponding to the size 
of the side. ' Brine is also forced into the flesh by means of a 
force-pump and jet. The next day the sides are piled one 
above the other, and remain so for four days, when they are 
turned over and sprinkled with more salt. Thus they remain 
for 12 days, when they are washed and dried. The next day 
they are taken to the " smoking house," where they hang for 
three days, being continuously smoked during that time with the 
fumes of burning oak sawdust ; thus they acquire the desired 
colour and flavour. The sides, when cold, are ready for market. 
Cured bacon sometimes become rancid or resty through exposure 
to air : this may be avoided by keeping it in dry bran. Another 



COMPOSITION OF BACON. 16 



injury to which bacon is subject arises from the attacks of a 
small fly, the larvae of which are known as jumpers. 

For domestic use pork may be cured as follows : — Stir some 
salt with hot water till no more of the substance is dissolved : this 
forms the brine or pickling liquor. Then mix, for a pig of mode- 
rate size, one pound of brown sugar and half-a-pound of nitre ; 
rub this mixture well into the meat, which is then to be put into 
the pickle, remaining there two days. After this take it out and 
rub the pieces with salt alone. Return it to the pickle. It will 
be ready for use, after drying and smoking, in six or eight weeks. 
It is scarcely necessary to say that bacon varies greatly in compo- 
sition. It always contains less water and more mineral matter 
than the pork from which it has been prepared, while the fat in it 
is more digestible. Highly smoked and dried bacon sometimes 
retains but 12 or T4 per cent, of moisture ; but a fair sample of 
streaky bacon, such as would be selected for the breakfast table, 
would be nearly represented, both as to moisture and its other 
chief constituents, by the following numbers : 

Case 93. In ioo parts. In i lb. 

oz. gr. 

Water . - - 22 *3 ... 3 248 

Nitrogenous matter 8'i ... 1 130 

Fat 65*2 ... 10 189 

Salt - - 3-8 ... o 256 

Phosphates, &c. - - - - - - o '6 ... o 42 

For one part of flesh-formers in the bacon examined there 
are nearly 20 parts of heat-givers, reckoned as starch, the 65*2 
per cent, of fat being equivalent to nearly 160 parts of starch: 
and it must be further noted that the whole of the 8*i per cent, 
of nitrogenous matter shown in the analysis cannot be reckoned 
as true albuminoids or flesh-forming nutrients, but, being in part, 
related to gelatin, is of less value. On this account we must 
reckon the amount of dry muscular substance producible from 
1 lb. of bacon as under 1 oz. 

The unsalted trimmings and offal of a bacon factory are 

m 2 



164 PRESERVED MEATS. 

utilised in the form of sausages, the minced materials being 
mixed with bread, fat, and condiments, and then preserved in the 
previously prepared small intestine of the pig. The surplus fat is 
melted, strained, and poured into cleaned pig-bladders; it is 
known as lard. 

Considerable quantities, both of bacon and of lard, are 
imported into this country from British colonies and from foreign 
countries. In 1875 the imports of bacon and hams amounted to 
131,495 tons; the imports of lard to 26,967 tons; and the 
imports of salted pork to 11,639 tons. During the first three 
months of 1876 the imports of bacon and hams showed an 
increased value of ,£400,000 over the corresponding period of 
1875. 

Preserved Meats. 

Case 04 and 95. There are several plans of preserving meat 
and animal food products generally. Simple drying is one of the 
most effective of these, but the flavour and other qualities of the 
meat are not improved thereby in most instances ; still this plan is 
available for some substances, and has long been in use. Drying 
in wood-smoke has the further advantage of preserving the sub- 
stance, to some extent, from further change even should it become 
moist. This effect is due to the creasote or carbolic acid which 
is present in the smoke. It has even been found that a piece of 
fresh meat which has been dipped in a watery solution of carbolic 
acid will dry up without becoming offensive in odour or taste. 

Salt, sugar, and many substances of a saline nature may be 
used to preserve meat from decomposition. They act by re- 
ducing the proportion of water present, and by preventing the 
development of those lower forms of vegetable and animal life 
which accompany and aid, if they do not originate, decay. But 
the most important methods of preserving animal products depend 
upon the exclusion of the air. This result may be achieved in 



TINNED MEATS. 165 

several ways, which do not appear at first sight to have much in 
common. In all of them, however, the objects in view are the 
removal of the air originally present in the food, and the preven- 
tion of any subsequent entrance of air. To accomplish these 
ends numerous plans have been devised. For the air may be 
excluded or removed by a high temperature or by a low one, or 
by the introduction of a substance like oil or fat, which mechani- 
cally excludes the air. Of the later method, sardines and 
pilchards preserved in oil, and then closed or hermetically sealed 
in tin cases, afford an illustration. Of the former method, the 
Australian meats are good examples. The meat, freed from 
bone, is placed in the tins, which are usually surrounded by a 
boiling solution of chloride of calcium, capable of being heated 
several degrees above the boiling point of water. The air in the 
meat is expelled by the heat, and finally by the rush of steam. 
When, by experience, this expulsion of air is judged to be com- 
plete, the tins are quickly soldered up and will then keep sound 
a great length of time. It should be stated that the tins often 
receive an addition of gravy, or, rather, of jelly, with a little salt, 
and occasionally some condiment or spice. Other processes for 
preserving meat have not proved equally available. Such pro- 
cesses are briefly noted here. The joints to be preserved have 
been coated with collodion, with solid paraffin, or with a mixture 
of gelatin and treacle, or gelatin and glycerin. Solutions of 
the sulphites of lime, magnesia, or soda, which absorb oxygen 
readily, have been employed. The sulphite of lime in powder, 
sometimes sold as a " meat preserver," has been successfully used 
for preventing meat from becoming tainted in hot weather, and in 
removing any taint which may have been acquired. Powdered 
charcoal, if freshly burnt, has the same properties. But the pre- 
viously described method of enclosing meat in sealed vessels — 
generally of tinned iron, but sometimes of glass — is undoubtedly 
the most generally applicable of all meat-preserving processes. 
The same method is used, also, for the preservation of nearly 



1 66 A USTRALIAN ME A TS. 

every kind of moist vegetable and animal products used as food, 
but prone to decay under ordinary conditions. The tinned 
Australian meats are gradually becoming more appreciated in 
England. They are moderate in price, agreeable in flavour, and 
perfectly wholesome. They generally have one defect, it is true, 
that of having been over-cooked. But during the last year or 
two several improvements have been devised in the process of 
tinning meats, by which the considerable heat and length of time 
necessary to secure complete expulsion of the air, before the tins 
in which the meat is contained can be sealed up by soldering, 
have been reduced. It has been found that a little sulphite of 
soda enclosed in tire tins may be used to absorb the last traces of 
oxygen — that constituent of the air which causes decay. And 
even gases, such as carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, and sulphurous 
acid have been introduced into the vessels containing preserved 
foods, for the same purpose. Then, too, methods of injecting 
antiseptic gases or solutions into the carcasses of animals used 
for food have been experimented with. Further progress will 
doubtless be made during the next few years in these directions ; 
much, for instance, may be expected from the application of cold 
and of condensed gases in the preservation of provisions. We 
also regard the processes of drying and smoking as worthy of 
more extended use in connection with the preservation of butchers' 
meat. * 

From Australia we already receive smoked and dried legs of 
mutton of excellent quality. 

Cases 94 and 95 . The importation of tinned Australian meats has 
assumed very considerable proportions since its origination ten 
years ago. During the last few years the annual value of these 
Australian tinned meats has often exceeded ^"500,000 sterling. 
It may be well to state that the prejudice against these tinned 
meats has been partly of the usual unreasonable sort, which 
revolts against all novelties in food ; and has partly arisen 
from ignorance as to suitable modes of cooking these meats 



MEAT EXTRACT AND FIBRIN. 167 

They may be properly used in Irish stews, in soups, and in many 
other ways, provided they be duly flavoured with condiments and 
are not re-cooked further than is necessary to heat them where 
they are not preferred cold. ' One caution about the tinned meats 
is necessary. Sometimes — though rarely — they have been found 
to contain a little lead in solution in the gravy; sometimes a 
large number of small globules of soft solder, containing much 
lead, at the bottom of the tin. This caution applies to all tinned 
provisions, vegetable as well as animal. They should be care- 
fully examined for metallic globules, which may prove injurious 
if swallowed with these foods. 

Meat Extract and Fibrin. 

Case 93 , When raw meat is thoroughly extracted with cold 
water, a liquid is obtained which contains creatine and a 
number of other crystallised nitrogenous matters, together 
with such mineral salts as the phosphate, sulphate, and chloride 
of potassium. So long as the extract remains at a low temper- 
ature, it will also retain in solution some at least of the soluble 
albumen of the meat. If the liquor be now boiled down, the 
albumen will curdle and separate, while the filtered liquor, if 
further concentrated, will become a nearly solid brown mass, rich 
in the permanently-soluble constituents of muscular flesh. Such a 
preparation does not contain more than a very small proportion 
of the true nutrients of meat, but is little more than a food- 
adjunct. Thus it is, that Liebig's Extract of Meat -cannot be re- 
garded as a food, though its use as a flavourer and as a medicine 
is not unimportant; it also furnishes some of the minor food 
constituents. An extract of meat prepared with boiling water 
contains gelatin. The fibrin of meat which is used in the 
preparation of these extracts is valuable when dried and powdered, 
or made into fibrin biscuits, &c, as a rich flesh-forming nutritive 
material. 



168 USFS OF FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 



PART IV.-OF FOOD-ADJUNCTS. 



It is impossible to draw a sharp line of distinction between true 
nutrients and food-adjuncts. There is scarcely a single article of 
food which does not possess some constituents which give it 
flavour, perfume, or colour, but which yet cannot be considered 
as doing any actual work in the body. But these adjuncts, in 
the forms of flavouring and colouring matters, &c, make our 
food agreeable, stimulate a flagging appetite, aid indirectly in the 
digestion of the nutrients, and help to render palatable food 
which would otherwise be wasted. More than this : some of the 
food-adjuncts actually furnish — along with their characteristic 
flavouring, stimulating, or narcotic constituents — real nutrients. 
Cocoa and beer are examples in point. And it has been thought 
that the active principles of certain food-adjuncts have some 
power of economising the true nutrients by arresting the rapid 
changes of tissue, &c, which go on in the body. In general 
terms we may affirm, that if injurious or even dangerous con- 
sequences may follow upon the excessive use of the true nutrients 
of the body, much more will this be the case with the food- 
adjuncts. 

The order in which we shall consider the several groups of 
food-adjuncts has been already indicated (p. 9). The first 
group contains alcohol as its most characteristic ingredient. 



ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS. 169 

§ 1. — Beer, Wine, and Spirits. 

The food-adjunct which is present in all fermented liquors, 
and in the different kinds of distilled spirits prepared therefrom, 
is a liquid known as alcohol and as spirits of wine. This liquid 
burns readily when a flame is applied to it, but it is very doubtful 
whether it is ever completely burnt or oxydised in the human 
body. Contrary to the general impression, it now appears that 
alcohol in any form lowers the temperature of the body. To 
many constitutions it is decidedly injurious, even when consumed 
in very moderate quantities and in the weakest or most dilute 
liquors. Its use throughout the day is nearly always fraught 
with danger. It is probable that it is best taken, not as a 
stimulant before work, but as a restorative after work, and as 
an accompaniment to the substantial meal of the day. Much, 
too, depends upon the form in which the alcohol is taken. Light 
wines, perfectly natural and not fortified with spirit, and pure 
beer or ale, are probably the most desirable liquors for general 
use. The worst kinds are distilled spirits, not only because of 
their strength, but because of the absence of those other con- 
stituents which modify the effect of alcohol in other beverages. 
But there is another bad quality in most spirits — that is the 
presence of a liquid called fusel oil. The exact physiological 
action on the human organism of fusel oil is not ascertained, but 
there is good reason to believe this liquid (in reality itself a kind 
of alcohol) to be more active than ordinary alcohol. We shall 
recur to this subject in the paragraph on distilled spirits. Here, 
however, a few further words about ordinary alcohol may not be 
out of place. The term "absolute alcohol" is used to designate 
pure spirits of wine wholly unmixed with water. It is chemically 
pure alcohol, the hydrate of ethyl, a liquid boiling at 173 Fah., 
and having the specific gravity 794 (water being iooo). Proof 
spirit is a mixture containing 49^ per cent, of its weight of 
absolute alcohol : its specific gravity is 920. 



170 MALT AND MALTING. 

Beer. 

Case 9 6. The most commonly used of all fermented liquors 
in England is beer, under which term we include ale and porter. 
These liquors are prepared from malted grain by simple fer- 
mentation, without concentration, dilution, or distillation of the 
fermented liquor. 

The three materials employed in the manufacture of beer are 
malt, hops, and water. 

The malt is made of sprouted or germinated grain, usually 
barley or rye. To prepare malt the grain is first placed in the 
" cistern," where it remains 50 hours, absorbing a large quantity 
of water and swelling considerably. It is then shifted into what 
is called the " couch," where, according to excise regulations, it 
remains 20 hours, and where the duty is taken by gauge. After 
this it is removed to the " floors," where the process of growth 
soon makes itself evident by the appearance of the slender rootlet 
of the seed. Barley in this stage of its conversion into malt is 
shown in specimen 3 ; while 4 shows the grain when it is six days 
old, the sprout, or acrosfiire, as it is called, being now much longer. 
The next specimen (No. 5) is of the grain when 10 days old, and 
No. 6 shows the grain when the sprouting has gone on to the full 
extent desired. Most maltsters and brewers dry the grain when 
it is from 10 to 12 days old, but occasionally 14 days elapse 
before the process of malting is considered sufficiently complete. 
These variations depend partly upon the quality of grain em- 
ployed, partly upon the temperature during malting, and partly 
upon the special purpose for which the malt is intended. When 
the germinated grain is considered sufficiently grown, further 
sprouting is stopped by drying it in the malt-kiln. The heat used 
causes other changes, and is different according to the -kind of 
beer for which the malt is to be used. Some idea of the tem- 
peratures may be gathered from this list : — No. 7, pale malt, for 
the palest ales, at about ioo° Fah, No. 8, amber malt, for other 
ales, at about 120 Fah. No. 9, brown malt, for porter, at about 



HOPS. 



171 



160 Fah. No. 10, black malt, for colouring, at 380 or 400 Fah. 
When malt has been finished by drying, it differs a good deal from 
the original unmalted grain. Instead of 15 per cent, of water, it 
contains only five ; but the chief change which it has undergone is 
the conversion of some of its starch into a kind of gum called 
dextrin, and into a species of sugar. It is found that screened 
malt contains, moreover, a substance capable of changing both 
dextrin and soluble starch into sugar. We say " screened " malt 
because the malt after kiln-drying is always sifted, to remove the 
rootlets or acrospires, which, under the name of malt dust or malt 
coombs (No. n), form a very valuable food for cattle, containing, 
as they do, about one quarter their weight of flesh-formers. The 
substance in malted grain which has the power of changing starch 
into dextrin and sugar is sometimes spoken of as diastase or 
maltin — it is a nitrogenous substance belonging to the albuminoid 
group. When malt is used for brewing it is first crushed (see 
specimen No. 12) and then infused in water, by which its soluble 
constituents are dissolved out, " wort " being produced, and 
brewers' grains are left (see No. 13). The wort is usually fer- 
mented at temperatures ranging between 60 ° and 90 Fah. 
During the fermentation sugar changes into alcohol, which re- 
mains in the liquor, and carbonic acid gas, which partly remains, 
giving briskness and frothiness to the beer, and partly escapes. 

Hops are added to the wort to give an agreeable bitter taste 
and keeping quality to the beer. Hops are the cones or strobiles 
of the hop (JZumulus Lupulus), called houblon by the French, and 
Hopfen in German. They were condemned in Henry VI. 's reign 
as an " unwholesome and wicked weed." In mediaeval times 
other plants were used for the same purpose, as ground ivy 
(Nepeta Glechoma), sweet gale (Myrica Gale), and sage {Salvia 
officinalis). Hops contain about 4 per cent, of the astringent 
substance tannin, 1)4, per cent, of a fragrant essential oil, and 
much resin. These substances are chiefly found in the yellow 
glandular secretion of the hop cones, called hipulin. Over 



172 BREWING. 

60,000 acres are devoted to the culture of this plant in England, 
chiefly in Kent, Sussex, and Worcestershire, while increasing 
quantities are yearly imported from Bavaria, Wurtemberg and 
Belgium. Specimens of hops from different localities are shown 
in the case (Nos. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19). The exhausted or 
spent hops (No. 20) are useful as manure. 

Of the water used in brewing beer little need be said. It 
should of course be free from all injurious impurities, and espe- 
cially from any organic matters undergoing change. But it must 
be noted that there is one mineral substance which exercises a 
decidedly beneficial effect upon beer, both during the progress of 
the brewing and on the finished product — this is sulphate of lime 
or gypsum. When the water available for brewing is deficient in 
this compound, it is introduced by allowing the water to pass 
over or through blocks of this mineral, or by stirring in the sul- 
phate of lime in fine powder or crystals. 

To make three barrels of ale (108 gallons), the quantities of 
the several materials required will be somewhat as follows : — 

1 quarter of Malt ; 

8 pounds of Hops; and 

5 barrels of Water — the barrel being 36 gallons. 

In brewing, one barrel of water — that is, 36 gallons — is lost 
by evaporation, and 14 gallons in the fermentation and racking ; 
18 gallons are absorbed by the grains, and 4 gallons by the hops. 

The process of brewing is begun by crushing the malt, and 
then pouring hot water (180 Fah.) upon it, with constant stir- 
ring. This mashing yields the liquor called sweet wort, which is 
then boiled with hops, and afterwards rapidly cooled. The liquor 
is now fermented by the aid of yeast from a previous brewing. 
The fermentation is stopped before it is complete by separating 
the yeast and drawing the beer off into casks. The fining of beer 
may take place naturally, or it may be effected by means of 



BREWING. 



i73 



isinglass dissolved in tartaric acid, in sour beer, or in weak 
sulphuric acid. There are many other fining materials which 
may be used. 

The finished beer holds in solution a large number of sub- 
stances, but the quantities of these substances present are not 
large — this fermented liquor always containing between 80 and 
90 per cent, of water. The following is a list of the chief com- 
pounds known to occur in beer : — 

1. Alcohol, or spirits of wine, from 8 to 3 per cent. 

2. Dextrin, about 4*5 per cent. 

3. Albuminoids, about 0-5 per cent. 

4. Sugar, about 0*5 per cent. 

5. Acetic, Lactic, and Succinic Acids, about 0*3 per cent. 

6. Carbonic Acid Gas, about 0*15 per cent. 

7. Mineral Matter, about 0-3 per cent. 

In the following analyses only some of the above constituents 
are separately entered, the items 2, 3, and 4 above being, for 
instance, set down as " extractive matter," a term which includes 
also several substances not named above (glycerine, caramel, 
hop-extract, &c). 

An imperial pint of the beers named contains — 



Beers. 


Water. 


Alcohol. 


Acetic 
acid. 


Extractive 
matter. 


Mineral 
matter. 




oz. gr. 


oz. gr. 


gr. 


oz. gr. 


gr. 


London Stout 


18 342 


1 74 


22 


I 25 


22 


London Porter 


18 412 


1 10 


16 


1 3 


18 


Pale Ale 


18 409 


1 12 


17 


372 


IO 


Strong Ale - 


17 399 


2 18 


21 


2 42 


30 



A few words may not be out of place here as to the intro- 
duction of other materials (besides those already named) into 
beer. 

But it should be at once stated that many of the substances 



i 7 4 WINE. 

supposed to be used for the purpose of adulterating beer and 
malt liquors are rarely so employed, and that some of these 
substances have never been so used. Thus, the rumour that 
strychnine (from the seeds of Strychnos niix-vomica) had been exten- 
sively used to give bitterness to beer was entirely devoid of foun- 
dation. There is also reason to think that the employment of 
"Cocculus Indicus" — the fruits of Anamirta Cocculus — in brewing 
has been very limited and exceptional : other bitter vegetable 
products have however been detected in some samples of ale. 
Caramel, or burnt sugar, liquorice, and salts of iron have been 
found in porter. A very common adulteration is salt — the object 
of this addition being not so much to develop the flavour and 
preserve the liquor, as to produce a craving for more drink in 
the frequenters of the beer-shop. Much artificial sugar (glucose) 
is also used in brewing, for the purpose of strengthening the wort. 
The use of gypsum, of which we have before spoken, can hardly 
be regarded as an adulteration. 

Beer which is sour or hard, or that which is thick and muddy, 
is not wholesome. The decided sourness of some beers is due 
to the alteration of a good deal of the spirit, which by ex- 
posure to air acquires oxygen, becoming changed into vinegar or 
acetic acid. The cloudiness of beer is often due to a second 
fermentation. 

Wine. 

When the sugary juice of any fruit is left to itself for a time, 
at a moderately warm temperature, the change known as fermen- 
tation occurs. This fermentation is generally brought about by 
the growth of a low form of vegetable life, an organised ferment. 
It consists of a splitting up of the sugar present in the liquid (or 
at least of a large part of it) into alcohol, which remains in the 
liquid, and carbonic acid gas, which escapes more or less com- 
pletely. 



CONSTITUENTS OF WINE. i 75 

Case 9 6. Although the fermented juice of all fruits may be 
regarded as wine, yet the term is generally limited to the al- 
coholic liquor prepared from the grape. But we have in England 
at least two familiar native wines — perry, or pear wine, and 
cider, or apple wine. Other so-called British wines are usually 
made-up or compound liquors, into which a large quantity of cane 
or beet sugar has been introduced. They cannot be regarded 
as true wines, nor are they generally wholesome. 

By a reference to the analysis of grapes (p. 118) it will be 
seen that the chief ingredient in their juice is glucose, a kind of 
sugar. There is also some albuminoid matter and a little tartaric 
acid, chiefly in combination with potash ; other minor ingredients 
also exist in grape-juice. The seeds of the grape contain the 
astringent substance, tannin, with some bitter principles, while in 
the skins not only does colouring matter exist, but also some 
flavouring matters and tannin. From these facts it will be clearly 
seen that very different qualities of wine may be made from the 
same quality of grape, according to the method of operating upon 
the fruit. The colour, the bouquet or volatile flavour, the 
astringency, &c, of a wine may thus be varied according to the 
admission or exclusion of the characteristic ingredients of the 
skins and stones of the grapes. 

Case 97. The main difference between grape juice and grape 
wine is the substitution of the sugar in the former by the alcohol 
which is characteristic of the latter. But other changes occur in 
the fermentation and ripening of wines. Much of the acid tartrate 
of potash is deposited from the liquid on being kept, this deposit 
being called argol. Argol consists chiefly of the above-named 
tartrate, but with it a little colouring matter and some tartrate of 
lime are always found. In the stronger but natural white wines 
small floating crystals of cream of tartar often occur ; they are nearly 
pure acid tartrate of potash. A small quantity of free acetic acid 
is found in wines. When they become sour it is this acid to 
which the sourness is due ; it is formed by the oxidation of some 



176 ALCOHOL IN WINES. 

■of the alcohol present, a change which occurs more readily in 
weak natural wines than in those which contain much alcohol. 
Another important characteristic of wines is the presence, in small 
quantity, of certain compounds called ethers. They are usually 
fragrant oily liquids, of which traces are present in all wines. 
These ethers are compounds formed by the union of the ordinary 
alcohol or spirit of wine with some of the acids which are con- 
tained in the fermented liquor — at least this is usually the case. 
Much, then, of the flavour and perfume of a wine is due to these 
ethers, some of which existed, ready-formed, in the grape itself, 
while others were slowly formed on keeping the fermented liquor. 
Different varieties of grape yield differently-flavoured wines, but 
the alcoholic strength of a wine depends mainly upon the pro- 
portion of sugar in the grapes and in the degree of completion to 
which the process of fermentation is carried. The same kind of 
grape gives a very different wine as to flavour and alcoholic 
strength in accordance with the climate in which it is grown, the 
season, and the soil. 

The quantity of true or absolute alcohol in natural wines 
varies from 7 per cent, in some hocks, clarets, and other light 
wines, to 13 per cent. in. many Greek and Hungarian vintages. 
When the quantity of absolute alcohol exceeds 13 or 13^ per 
cent, it may usually be considered that the wine has received 
an addition of distilled spirit, or has been fortified. Wines of 
delicate flavour will not bear fortifying, the alcohol added being 
usually derived from the fermentation of artificially-prepared grape 
sugar, and containing the coarsely-flavoured alcohols known as 
fusel oil. A fortified wine may contain a good deal, of sugar, for 
the addition of spirit to a fermenting liquid checks, more or less 
completely, the farther change of the sugar. 

Wines under 26 of proof spirit pay on importation a duty of 
is. a gallon; those over 26° and under 42 ° pay 2s. 6d. Large 
and increasing quantities of natural wines now come into this 
country. Even of Spanish wines so imported about half are of 



FOREIGN AND ENGLISH WINES. 



177 



natural strength, while the average of all Spanish wines does not 
show much over 28 per cent, of proof spirit — rather less than 
14 per cent, of absolute alcohol. 

Case 97. The following table shows the quantities of alcohol, 
of fixed acids — calculated as tartaric acid — of acetic acid, of sugar, 
of ethers, and of mineral matter or ash, contained in fair average 
samples of eight different kinds of wines commonly consumed 
in Europe. One imperial pint of each of the following wines 
contains about — 



Name of Wine. 


Alcohol 
(absolute). 


Tartaric 
and other 
fixed acids. 


Acetic 
acid. 


Sugar. 


Ethers. 


Mineral 
matter. 




oz. gr. 


gr. 


gr. 


oz. gr. 


gr. 


gr. 


Hock 


I 219 


39 


18 


none 


4 


IO 


Claret 


I 306 


3i 


18 


9 


6 


18 


Champagne 


1 343 


20 


IO 


1 120 


5 


20 


Burgundy - 


2 18 


24 


17 


10 


6 


18 


Carlowitz - 


2 35 


36 


19 


none 


5 


16 


Sherry 


3 147 


24 


12 


236 


4 


38 


Madeira 


3 218 


26 


18 


175 


5 


33 


Port - 


3 218 


23 


12 


359 


6 


20 



The different wines made in this country from rhubarb stalks, 
gooseberries, currants, cowslips, elderberries, oranges, &c, con- 
tain oxalic, malic, and other acids, besides the tartaric acid which 
is the chief acid of the grape. Now these acids are not thrown 
out of the liquor after fermentation, as is the case to a great extent 
with the wine from grapes. Thus sugar has to be added to mask 
the acidity of these liquors, and in consequence they are not so 
wholesome as the natural imported wines. But it must not be 
supposed that grapes are entirely free from all acids save tartaric, 
or that the analyses above given represent every constituent of 
the wines we have included in the table.* 



* Specimens of grapes, &c, will be found in Case 58. A model vineyard 
is labelled 101. Samples of British wines are shown in Case 98. 

N 



1 78 DISTILLED SPIRITS. 

The ethers of wine previously alluded to include a number of 
compounds not yet completely analysed or understood. Some 
of them, however, have been examined pretty fully, and even 
exactly imitated by chemical means. GEnanthate, butyrate, and 
acetate of ethyl are the names given to some of the best known of 
these ethers. These ethers enter into the composition of the 
artificial " oil of cognac " and various flavouring essences. 

Cider, the fermented juice of apples, contains from 2 ^ to 4^ 
per cent, of absolute alcohol, together with some malic acid, gum, 
mineral matter, &c. The quantity of sugar present varies with 
the less or more complete fermentation of the apple-juice. 

Perry, made from pears, closely resembles cider in flavour and 
composition. 



Distilled Spirits. 

When any kind of fermented liquor is warmed, the vapour 
which first comes off contains much of the spirit or alcohol 
present. If the vapour be collected and cooled it assumes the 
form of a liquid, which originally received the name of spirits of 
wine. The operation is known as distillation, and the product is 
called distilled spirits. As the heat is continued the distilled 
liquid becomes weaker and weaker, containing more water and 
less alcohol. The cause of the differences in flavour between 
distilled spirits from different sources lies not in the alcohol, but 
in the traces of ethers or essential oils which accompany this 
alcohol — which are volatile, like alcohol, and which are easily 
dissolved by it. The flavours of distilled spirits originate in the 
substances which by their fermentation have given rise to the 
alcoholic liquors which have been distilled. But it is usual, in 
many cases, to add flavouring matters of many kinds to distilled 
spirits. Indeed, from the same batch of spirits obtained by the 
distillation of a fermented solution of grape sugar or malt sugar, 
either gin, or whisky, or brandy may be prepared. The spirit 



GIN. 179 

used must be pure — at least it must have no very pronounced 
flavour of its own — if it has to be used as the basis of several 
distinct kinds of ardent spirits. It must tell no tales of its origin 
— of the starch, old rags, paper, or woody fibre, from which, by 
the action of sulphuric acid, it has been derived. It must in fact 
deserve the name often given to it of silent spirit. 

Case 99. The following are the chief varieties of distilled 
spirits in common use : — 

Gin, which is obtained, or should be obtained, from the dis- 
tillation of fermented grain, is flavoured with the essential oil of 
juniper berries, and other aromatic substances. Many recipes for 
the preparation of this liquor are in use by the distillers, but the 
general plan is to introduce into the still the essential oil (which 
is often turpentine), the aromatic seeds and fruits, the creasote, 
and other materials of strong taste which are in vogue, and to 
distil the spirit once or more from this complex mixture. The 
less residue there is left when a pint of gin is boiled down till 
nothing more can be driven off at the heat of boiling water the 
more likely it is to be wholesome. Another test for the quality 
of this and all other distilled spirits is the following : Get a 
straight glass tube, about three feet long, about half an inch 
wide, open at both ends, and perfectly clean and dry. Hold 
it upright, and pour the spirit to be tested down it, so that the 
inner surface of the tube is thoroughly wetted. Then move the 
tube to and fro till the ordinary alcohol has become vaporised. 
There will remain behind most of the odorous substances present 
in the original spirit. Thus, the fusel oil, so abundant in the 
spirit distilled from fermented beet-root sugar or potato-starch 
sugar, will remain in the tube, and may be detected by its powerful 
and choking smell. This fusel oil contains what are called the 
higher alcohols of the same series as that to which ordinary 
alcohol belongs. Amongst these we may name butyl, propyl, and 
amyl alcohol. On keeping a spirit which contains these alcohols 
they will often be found to diminish in quantity, giving rise to 

N 2 



180 BRANDY. 

compound ethers like acetate of butyl- and amyl. These ethers 
are more agreeable in taste and smell, and probably less ob- 
jectionable, from a physiological point of view, than the fusel oil 
from which they originate. 

Gin is sold at very varying strengths, so far as alcohol is con- 
cerned — a common strength being 17 under proof. It is often 
lowered still further by the addition of water. The water used 
is too often itself unwholesome and charged with impurities. 
Nothing but carefully prepared and filtered distilled water should 
be used — this is the case in the best distilleries. But the dis- 
tillers are not to blame in most cases for the bad quality of the 
gin sold in public-houses. The retailers, not infrequently, having 
lowered the alcoholic strength of the liquor by means of water, 
restore the fiery character of the spirit by means of natural and 
artificial preparations of a heating character. 

A sample of London gin was found to be 22 under proof, 
and contained 11^/3 gr. of solid matter per pint. 

Cordial gin is flavoured with additional spices and essential 
oils, as cinnamon, cloves, &c. Gin containing sugar is sold as 
sweetened gin. 

The words " gin " and " geneva " are believed to be derived 
from the French word geniev?'e, juniper. 

Brandy, when genuine, is the spirit distilled from wine. 
Imitations are sold under the name of British brandy. Cognac 
and other genuine French brandies are flavoured with prunes or 
dried plums, and always contain some sugar. Caramel, or burnt 
sugar, and many other substances are used to colour and flavour 
the spirit from potatoes, &c, which receives the name of brandy 
in England. True brandy contains some cenanthic and acetic 
ether from the wine ; the imitation brandy is flavoured with the 
so-called essence of cognac, an artificial mixture of certain chemi- 
cally-prepared ethers. 

A good sample of true cognac, of pale colour, was found to 
contain 136 gr. of solid dissolved substances per imperial pint, 



RUM. 181 

74 gr. being sugar. It was of proof strength, but is usually 
sold at 15 under proof. A fair sample of dark brown " British 
brandy" was found to contain 61 }4 gr. of solid fixed matter 
per pint, 18*^ gr. being sugar. Its strength was-i7 under proof. 

True brandy improves in flavour by being kept. 

Whisky, when genuine, is distilled from fermented grain. It 
has a smoky taste, owing to the presence of traces of creasote, 
&c, from wood or peat smoke. By the addition of artificial 
flavourers, any distilled or silent spirit may be made into whisky. 
A good sample of Scotch whisky, two years old, was 10 over 
proof (but it is often sold at 10 under proof). The same sample 
was found to contain 6 gr. of solid matter per pint, 3 gr. of 
this being sugar. Whisky is sometimes put into sherry casks. 
If it becomes thick it should be filtered through paper-pulp 
filters; too often it is fined by chemical preparations, such as 
the following : First, a little carbonate of soda in solution is 
thoroughly mixed with the liquor, and then a corresponding 
quantity of Epsom salts is added. The precipitate of carbonate 
of magnesia which then forms carries down with it any floating 
particles. But salts of several kinds, and other impurities, are 
thus introduced into the spirit. 

A sample of so-called Scotch whisky supplied by a large 
London firm was found to be rather impure so far as fixed 
matter is concerned. The total residue from one pint amounted 
to 50 gr., 42 of which were sugar. 

Rum is made from the molasses, or dark uncrystallisable 
liquid sugar, which is obtained in the preparation of solid sugar 
from cane juice. The skimmings from the vats in which the cane 
juice is clarified and boiled down are used in the same way. 
White rum is the pure distilled spirit, but ordinary Jamaica rum 
has been coloured with caramel. 

A genuine sample of rum from the West Indies was found 
to contain 363^ gr. of solid residue per pint, 18 gr. being 
sugar, and \ x /z gr. being mineral matter. The chief natural 



182 LIQUEURS. 

flavouring material of rum is butyric ether, but this spirit some- 
times receives in addition the flavour of the pineapple. 

Case 9g . Besides gin, brandy, whisky, and rum, there are 
many kinds of spirits from sources other than those already 
named, and possessed of different flavours, artificial or natural. 
Amongst these we may name the following, premising that all the 
products are obtained by the distillation of a fermented solution 
of sugar — that sugar being naturally present in the original fruit, 
root, &c, or else produced by a change of starch into sugar. 
Distilled spirits are obtained from oranges, cashew-nuts, apricots, 
Jerusalem artichokes, sugar-millet, potatoes, flowering branch and 
sap of many palms (arrack), cider, cider lees, maize, honey, 
refuse of starch manufacture, &c. &c. A Japanese spirit, called 
" saki," is distilled from rice. 

The peculiar and often disagreeable odour and taste of dis- 
tilled spirits may be removed by careful and repeated distillation, 
and by very thorough filtration through animal charcoal. Some 
chemical substances are also found to be useful in aiding the 
separation of the fusel oil and other substances upon which the 
odour and flavour of different distilled spirits depend.* 

Liqueurs. 

Case 99 . When a considerable quantity of sugar is added to a 
flavoured spirit, a cordial or liqueur is the product. The flavour- 
ing materials used in liqueurs are named in the next section of 
the present part of this volume : they are very numerous, and 
include natural products, as fruits, seeds, bark, and roots, as well 
as the essential oils and separated aromatic principles of these 
parts of plants. Orange bitters contain the essential oil of orange- 
peel and the bitter substance which accompanies it. Noyau is 

* In Case 100 there are numerous specimens of distilled spirits or alcohol 
from new or unusual sources. They have been rendered potable by filtration 
through charcoal, &c. 



CONSUMPTION OF ALCOHOL. 183 

flavoured with the essential oil of bitter almonds, which is iden- 
tical with that distilled from peach kernels, laurel leaves, &c. 
Chartreuse contains a peculiar kind of turpentine, with the essen- 
tial oil of angelica. The names of other liqueurs sufficiently 
indicate the nature of the flavouring substances to which their 
taste and some other qualities are due. Absinthe is wormwood, 
and gives its name to a bitter liqueur much consumed in France. 
Tea, coffee, cocoa, and vanilla are also employed in the pre- 
paration of liqueurs or flavoured spirits. 

Some notion of the amount of spirits annually consumed in 
Great Britain may be gained from the following figures, which 
represent the total Customs and Excise duties on spirits paid in 
the year ending 31st March, 1876 : — ■ 

England ,£13,206,641 

Scotland 4,041,419 

Ireland 3,328,752 

Total - ^20,5 76,612 

The total value of these distilled spirits amounted to ^43, 067, 02 2. 
If to this figure we add ^72,785,921 as the cost of the malt 
liquor consumed in one year, ^"13,112,029 for the foreign wines, 
and ;£i, 000,000 for other alcoholic liquors, we arrive at a grand 
total of ^£i 30,000,000 or more as the annual value of the alco- 
holic beverages made in or imported into the United Kingdom. 
It is estimated that the above annual quantity of distilled spirits 
contains 21,000,000 gallons of absolute alcohol, the total quan- 
tity in all the beverages being at least 80,000,000 gallons. The 
number of gallons of spirits paying duty in the year 1875 was 
as follows : — 

Gallons. 

British spirits 80, 106, 107 

Colonial spirits ------ 5,361,486 

Foreign spirits 6,421,164 

Total - 41,886,757 



1 84 MUSTARD. 

The duty payable on imported spirits is ios. $d. per gallon. 
Most of the rum imported came from British Guiana and the 
British West Indies. From France 3,250,000 gallons of brandy 
were received, and from Holland a small quantity of Geneva. 

§ 2. — Condiments, Spices, and Flavourers. 

The taste of many vegetable products is so definite and so 
strong that they cannot be used as substantive articles of diet. 
These fruits and seeds, &c, are, however, very useful as means 
of imparting agreeable flavours to the simpler food materials, 
which thus become not only more palatable but more wholesome. 
Still, the condiments, spices, and flavourers must be used with 
moderation, or their action on the processes of digestion and 
assimilation may become injurious. 

The chief active and efficient ingredients of this group of 
food-adjuncts are volatile — that is, they may generally be dissi- 
pated by a moderate heat. Most of them are known as essential 
oils, but some are solid crystalline bodies or resinous matters. 
We shall here first describe the chief condiments, then the spices, 
and afterwards the group to which the name of flavourers has 
been given. 

Mustard. 

French, Moutarde. German, Senf. Italian, Mostarda. 

Case 102. Black Mustard is the seed of Brassica nigra, a plant 
found wild in most parts of Europe. It is cultivated in Elsass, 
Bohemia, Italy, Holland, and England. It flourishes in the rich 
alluvial soils of Lincolnshire and Yorkshire. It was in common use 
in the Middle Ages as a condiment. Black mustard seeds are but 
one-fifth the size of white mustard seeds : they contain one-third 
of their weight of a bland fixed oil, while the pungent essential oil 
is not produced till the ground seeds are wetted. This pungent 
oil contains both nitrogen and sulphur. The best flour of 
mustard contains nothing but black and white mustard seeds : 



PEPPER. 185 

some manufacturers, however, produce an inferior material con- 
taining flour, turmeric, and capsicum. The seeds of another kind 
of mustard (Brassiea juncea) are largely substituted for the true 
black mustard ; no less than 790 tons of this kind having been 
imported from British India into the United Kingdom in 1872. 

White Mustard, the seeds of Brassica alba, does not yield a 
pungent oil. Its cultivation is extending in England, as in Essex 
and Cambridgeshire. 

Pepper. 
French, Poivre. German, Pfeffer. Italian, Pepe. 

Case 102. Pepper consists of the fruits (twenty to thirty of which 
grow on one flower-stalk) of Piper nigrum, a perennial climbing 
plant, a native of Travancore and Malabar, but introduced into 
Sumatra, Java, Siam, West Indies, &c. Pepper owes its pungency 
to about 2 per cent, of an essential oil : it contains also 2^ per 
cent, of piperin. 

White Pepper is prepared from the above-named fruits when 
ripe by removing the dark pericarp or covering ; it thus becomes 
less pungent. 

Long Pepper consists of the unripe spike or fruit produced 
by two other species of Piper, namely : P. longum, a native of 
Malabar ; and P. offici7iarum, a native of the Indian Archipelago. 

Cayenne Pepper is prepared from the pods of one or more 
kinds of Capsicum. The small pods are called chillies, and are 
produced by C. fastigiatum, a plant which is wild in South India, 
and cultivated in tropical Africa and America. Chillies have 
been termed Spanish pepper, red pepper, and pod pepper. 
Another species of capsicum (C. annuum) yields the larger pods, 
generally called " capsicums " (the poivrons of the French) ; of 
these several varieties exist. This plant was grown in England by 
Gerarde in 1597 : our supplies are derived chiefly from Zanzibar, 
Natal, &c. The capsicum belongs to the Solanacecz, the Order 
which includes the potato, the tomato, and tobacco. 



1 86 FENNEL. 

Horse-radish. 
French, Raifort. German, Meer Rettig. Italian, Rafano. 

Horse-radish is the root of a common European perennial 
plant ( Cocktearia Armoracid) ; it has been used as a condiment in 
England from the 17th century. It yields a pungent essential 
oil, which seems to be the same as that from black mustard. The 
poisonous roots of aconite, Aconitum Napel/us, sometimes called 
monk's-hood or wolfs-bane, have been mistaken for those of 
horse-radish."" 

Parsley. 

French, Percil. German, Petrosilie. Italian, Prezzamolo. 

Parsley is Apium Petroselinum, a native umbellifer of Sardinia ; 
the leaves of which are used not only as a garnish, but are eaten 
fresh or dried as a navourer. 

Mint. 
French, Menthe. German, Mi'mze. • Italian, Menta. 
Mint or Spearmint is Mentha viridis, a pleasant aromatic 
labiate herb, used in seasoning and for boiling with green peas. 

Thyme. 
French, Thym. German, Thimian. Italian, Timo. 

Thyme is Thymus vulgaris, a small labiate shrub of South 
Europe, not a native of England. Its odour and taste are due to 
an essential oil known in trade as origanum oil. Wild English 
thyme (Th. Serpyllum) is a different plant. 

Fennel is an umbelliferous plant, Fceniculum vulgare, found 
wild in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean : it has a 
perennial root stalk, while the Indian plant is an annual. The 
fruits of fennel (commonly called seeds), as well as the leaves, 
contain a peculiar aromatic essential oil, which is also found in 

* Compare the specimens of the roots of these two plants as shown in the 
collection. 



CONDIMENTS. 187 

anise-seeds. Chopped fennel leaves are used in the melted butter 
eaten with mackerel : the fruits give flavour to certain cordials. 

Marjoram {Origanum vulgare), Sweet Marjoram (O. Ma- 
jor ana), Sweet Basil (Ocymum basilicuni), and Sage (Salvia 
officinalis), are all labiate plants, and are known as pot-herbs. 
Their aromatic leaves are used either fresh or dried for seasoning 
food. 

Cumin is an umbelliferous plant (Cwninum Cyminuni) which 
has been known from very early times. Its fruits contain an 
essential oil of very strong odour and taste : they are used in the 
preparation of some spirits and cordials, and form a constituent 
of curry-powder. Dutch cheese is sometimes flavoured with 
cumin. 

Turmeric is the root-stock of Curcuma longa. It is used as a 
yellow dye as well as a condiment : it is one of the chief ingre- 
dients of curry-powder. Our supplies come mainly from Bengal 
and Pegu — the Cochin turmeric is from another species of Cur- 
cuma. The odour of turmeric is due to an essential oil, present 
to the extent of 1 per cent. Curcumin is the yellow colouring- 
matter. 

Chervil (Anthriscus Cerefoliwii) is an umbelliferous plants 
the young leaves of which are used in France for flavouring soups, 
and salads. 

Dill is an umbelliferous plant (Anethum graveolens) resembling 
fennel. Its fruits are aromatic, but it is little used for culinary 
purposes in Europe. 

Anise, or Pimpinella Anisum, is a native of Asia Minor,. 
Egypt, &c. : it is cultivated in many parts of South Europe. The 
fruits contain about 2 per cent, of an essential oil, which is used 
in flavouring cordials. 

Capers are the flower-buds, and sometimes the unripe fruits 
of Capparis spinosa, a wall plant of South Europe. Our supplies 
are chiefly from Italy and France. Capers are prepared and pre- 
served by pickling them in vinegar. A common substitute for 



188 GINGER. 

them is found in the unripe fruits of the garden nasturtium 
{Tropceohtm majus) : other substitutes are also in use on the 
Continent. 

Garlic is a native of Southern Europe and is closely related 
to the onion, but has a much stronger taste. Its bulb consists of 
ten or twelve parts .called " cloves." It is Allium sativum. It is 
used in sauces. 

Shallot, or Eschalote {Allium ascolonicum) , is a native of 
Palestine. Its cloves are milder than those of onions : it is used 
in pickles, salads, and seasoning, and to flavour vinegar. 

Chives {Alliicm Schcenoprasuni) are a native of Britain. They 
form a favourite addition to soups in Scotland. 

Tarragon is Artemisia Dracunculus, one of the Composite. 
It is closely related to the well-known aromatic plants, common 
wormwood and southernwood ; but, unlike them, its leaves are 
undivided. It is a native of Siberia, but is cultivated to some 
extent in France as an ingredient in salads and pickles, and for 
flavouring vinegar. 

Savory is of two "kinds : summer savory is Satureja Ziortensis, 
a most aromatic annual plant, a native of Southern Europe ; the 
other is an evergreen, S. montana. They are used for sauces and 
seasoning, and admit of being dried. 

Spices. 

Spices are usually added to. articles of food containing sugar, 
while condiments are eaten with meat, and generally with any 
foods which contain common salt. But it is impossible to draw 
any very distinct line between condiments and spices. Amongst 
the latter we may include — 

Case io 3 . Ginger is the rhizome or root-stock of Zingiber 
officinale, a reed-like plant now grown in most hot countries : it 
has been long known and esteemed. Most of our ginger comes 
from the East and West Indies, and has been scraped. Its 
odour is due to an essential oil, its hot taste to a peculiar resin. 



SPICES. 189 

Fresh or green ginger, consisting of the young shoots of the 
rhizome, forms, when boiled in syrup, an agreeable preserve. 

Cardamoms are the aromatic fruits of many plants belonging 
to the Ginger Order. Common cardamoms are the produce of 
Elettaria Cardamomum, a reed-like perennial common in the 
moist mountain forests of Malabar : " Grains of Paradise " are the 
fruits of Amomum Melegueta, an allied plant of West Africa ; they 
are used to give pungency to spirits, &c., also in veterinary medicine. 

Cinnamon consists of the true bark or liber of a small ever- 
green tree of Ceylon, Cinnamomum zeylanicum : it was known in 
very ancient times as a spice. The crop is gathered about 
May and November, the two-year-old shoots being stripped and 
slightly fermented. Cinnamon contains a fragrant essential oil. 

Cassia is the bark of a Chinese species of Cinnamomum, while 
"Cassia buds" are the unripe fruits of the same tree. 

Sassafras is produced by Sassafras officinale, a tree of North 
America. 

Nutmegs are the seeds of Myristica fragrans, a handsome 
evergreen tree, wild in the Banda Isles, New Guinea, &c, and 
cultivated elsewhere with some success. The long nutmeg is the 
produce of M. fatua. The nutmeg contains about 6 per cent, of 
an aromatic and pungent essential oil. 

Mace is a covering of the nutmeg, and is termed an aril in 
botany. It contains about 4^ per cent, of an aromatic oil. 

Cloves are the dried calyx and flower-buds of Eugenia caryo- 
phyllata, an evergreen tree belonging to the Myrtle Order. Our 
supplies come from Zanzibar and the West Indies. Cloves are 
used in flavouring cordials and apple tarts and puddings. They 
contain a pungent aromatic oil in considerable quantity. 

Allspice or Pimento is a small dry berry, the fruit of Pimenta 
officinalis, an evergreen tree of the Myrtle Order common in the 
West Indies. Pimento contains about 4 per cent, of an aromatic 
pungent oil much like that of cloves. Our supplies come wholly 
from Jamaica. 



igo OIL OF LEMON. 

Caraway, or Carum Carvi, is a biennial umbelliferous plant 
something like a carrot. It is cultivated to some extent in Kent 
and Sussex ; much is imported from Holland. An acre yields 
from four to eight hundredweight of the fruits. They contain an 
essential oil, and are used to flavour cakes, confectionery, biscuits, 
and cordials. 

Peppermint is a labiate plant {Mentha Piperita). It is grown 
in Surrey and Cambridgeshire, and is common, as a wild plant, 
in many parts of England. The whole plant, especially just 
before flowering, is rich in an essential oil of aromatic and even 
burning taste, which is used to flavour sweetmeats and cordials. 

Coriander (Coi'iandrum sativum) is an umbelliferous plant of 
the south of Europe, and is cultivated largely in France. The 
fruits of this plant contain a small quantity of essential oil : they 
are used in flavouring cordials. 

Angelica {Archangelica officinalis) is an umbelliferous plant 
common in most parts of Europe. Its roots, though of somewhat 
medicinal taste, are used as food in Norway and Lapland ; the 
stems, boiled in sirup, yield a pleasant sweetmeat ; the fruits are 
used in flavouring some cordials, as Chartreuse. 

Flavourers. 

Some artificial and some natural products of strong taste and 
smell are included in this group of flavourers. In many instances 
flavourers are prepared by the distillation of seeds, fruits, &c, 
when the fragrant essential oil comes over and is condensed. 
Such essential oils dissolved in spirit of wine constitute the 
extracts or flavouring essences so much used in cookery. But 
the compound ethers, many of which may be prepared artificially, 
are now used for similar purposes. The following flavourers are 
in common use : — 

Case xo 3 . 1. Essential Oil of Lemon, and of other fruits of the 
genus Citrus, as the orange and the citron. These oils occur in 
the rind of the fruits, whence they may be removed not only by 
distillation but by pressure. The fresh peel of these fruits is- used 



VANILLA. 191 

for flavouring, but it may be preserved by careful drying. It is 
also eaten after having been boiled in syrup as candied peel, 
and in several other forms. 

Case 104. 2. Oil of Bitter Almonds is obtained — by means of 
maceration in water, and subsequent distillation — from the bitter 
almond, a variety of Amygdalus communis. The same essential oil 
may be got from peach and plum kernels and from laurel leaves. 
The crude oil, as obtained by distillation, always contains prussic 
acid in considerable quantity. This most poisonous substance 
ought always to be removed from the bitter-almond flavouring 
used in cookery. No preparation of bitter almonds, no essence 
of " ratafia " or peach-kernels, should be employed in the kitchen 
unless it is guaranteed to be free from prussic acid. Cakes, 
custards, and blancmange are flavoured with oil of bitter almonds. 
The odour and taste of this oil are approached in two artificial 
products — nitrobenzol and benzonitril. Nitrobenzol, which is 
incorrectly termed artificial oil of bitter almonds, and sometimes 
essence of mirbane, is obtained by acting upon benzol (a liquid 
constituent of coal-tar) with nitric acid. It is poisonous, and has 
a much less agreeable odour and taste than the true oil. Benzo- 
nitril is obtained by the distillation of hippuric acid, a substance 
contained in the urine of horses and oxen. 

Case 104. 3. Vanilla. — The navourer known under this name 
consists of the fruits of an orchid belonging to the genus Vanilla. 
The most highly-prized sort is obtained from V. filanifolia, a plant 
indigenous to hot regions of Eastern Mexico. It was brought to 
Europe by the Spaniards.* Other species of vanilla are also 
used, but are thought to be of inferior quality. The pods of the 
various kinds of vanilla owe their rich and agreeable aroma to the 
presence of a white crystalline substance called vanillin. This 
substance is now made artificially from another natural product — 
coniferin, which is contained in the sapwood of pines. The 



* Specimens of vanilla from the French colonies of Reunion (introduced 
there in 181 7), Guadaloupe, and Guiana, are placed in Case 104. 



192 SAFFRON. 

artificial vanillin is not a mere imitation of the natural substance, 
but is absolutely identical with it. Vanilla is used to flavour 
cocoa, chocolate, ices, biscuits, creams, and even coffee and tea. 

Case 104. 4. Artificial Fruit Essences. — Although there are few 
cases in which the exact nature of the delicate flavours of fruit 
has been ascertained, yet there can be little doubt that the dis- 
covery has been made in some instances. Even were this not so, 
still there are now known many artificial products, chiefly the 
so-called compound ethers, which resemble very closely indeed in 
taste and smell the natural flavours of certain fruits. One of the 
most extensively used of all these is the acetate of amyl, a com- 
pound ether which may be regarded as derived from vinegar and 
potato oil by the removal of the elements of water. The so-called 
essence of Jargonelle pears is a spirituous solution of the acetate 
of amyl : it is employed in flavouring confectionery, especially 
pear-drops. Unfortunately it is used too freely, and is seldom 
sufficiently pure for this purpose. Other compound ethers impart 
the flavour of other fruits to articles of confectionery, liqueurs, 
and foods. Apple oil is chiefly valerate of amyl, pineapple oil is 
butyrate of ethyl and butyrate of propyl, and grape or cognac oil 
is a mixture of several compound artificial ethers. Many other 
flavourers of similar character have been artificially prepared : 
they are much used by the makers of cheap confectionery. 

There are some natural products used as spices, condiments, 
or flavourers, which we have not described; indeed, a volume 
would be required for the adequate treatment of this subject, for 
the 'details connected with these products are very numerous. 
Take one example. Saffron has long been used for colouring 
and flavouring confectionery, fancy biscuits, &c. The plant which 
yields it, the Crocus sativus, was grown in the reign of Edward III. 
The part used consists of the stigmas only of the flower, and the 
colouring substance they contain is so intense that one grain of 
the commercial saffron will colour yellow ten gallons of water. 
Our supplies of saffron now come chiefly from Spain and France, 



VINEGAR AND ACIDS. 193 

but the plant was once largely grown in England between Saffron 
Walden and Cambridge. To give similar details as to other 
flavourers would obviously occupy an amount of space much 
greater than the importance of the subject warrants : we cannot 
therefore further dwell upon these numerous minor flavourers. 
Bat we may name in passing that sauces should be included 
here, for they usually contain mixtures of several condiments 
dissolved in weak vinegar and other liquids, and that there 
are some materials of animal origin used in part for the same 
purposes. 

Case 94. Of these latter the extract of meat invented by Liebig 
is the most important. It contains nitrogenous matters, such as 
creatine, with large quantities of potash salts — in fact, all the 
constituents of flesh which can be dissolved by hot water. Still, 
it is a stimulant and flavourer chiefly, and cannot be regarded as 
a substantive food. 



§ 3. — Vinegar, Pickles, and Acids. 

Case 108. There are several acids in most vegetable products. 
They exist partly in the form of salts, and partly in the free state. 
The most common and most important vegetable acids are 
these four : Citric Acid, Tartaric Acid, Malic Acid, and Oxalic 
Acid. To these must be added a fifth acid, the Acetic ; which, 
however, is mainly produced artificially by the change or oxida- 
tion of alcohol or even of sugar, but which occurs also to a 
small extent in some fruits, especially when they are over-ripe or 
decaying. 

All the acids probably act in the processes of digestion and 
nutrition in much the same way. They exert a solvent action 
upon many of the nutrients, but their own nutritive power is very 
small, for they cannot be consumed in sufficient quantity to give 





j 94 ACIDS. 

out any appreciable amount of heat or force. More than this, 
they are already highly oxidized products, and require but a small 
further addition of oxygen to be converted into the final products 
of oxidation — carbonic acid and water : this is especially the case 
with oxalic acid. 

Case 108. Citric Acid and its salts — the citrates — are particu- 
larly abundant in the fruits of some plants of the orange tribe, 
more particularly in the lemon. From this fruit the crystallised 
citric acid of commerce is separated on a large scale. The 
expressed juice is boiled down, and imported into this country 
in a concentrated form. Citric acid is an acid of agreeable taste 
and quite wholesome, even when taken in rather large quantities. 
It is found in the free state in many unripe English fruits, as 
gooseberries; but it is also present in the form of citrates of 
potash, lime, and other bases. 

Case 108. Tartaric Acid is the characteristic acid of grapes. 
It occurs mainly in the form of the acid tartrate of potash. This 
substance is the main constituent of argol, the crust which is 
deposited from wine. When purified, argol yields tartar, or cream 
of tartar, which is identical with the acid tartrate of potash. 
Tartaric acid is a solid crystalline substance, which, like citric 
acid, is easily soluble in water. It is a less pleasant and whole- 
some acid than citric acid. 

Malic Acid is present -in many fruits, especially in those of 
the Rose Order. It may be extracted from apples and pears. 

Oxalic Acid, more particularly in the form of the acid-oxalate 
of potash, is present in the common sorrel (Rumex acetosa), in the 
wood sorrel (Oxa/is acetosella), in the garden rhubarb (Rheum 
rhaponticum), and in many other plants. It is the least wholesome 
of all the acids we have named ; indeed, it acts, even in moderate 
doses, as an irritant poison. 

Acetic Acid is best known in the form of vinegar, which is a 
weak mixture of real acetic acid and water, usually flavoured with 
burnt sugar, or malt extract, or some condimental herb, as tarragon 



VINEGAR, 195 

or chillies. Four kinds or varieties of vinegar are commonly 
used in Europe. These are— 1, Malt Vinegar ; 2, Wine Vinegar ; 
3, Wood Vinegar ; 4, Vinegar from starch, sugar, &c. The acid 
in all of these products is identical, but there are evident dif- 
ferences in flavour and odour between the different sorts. It is 
usual, however, by the addition of colouring matter and flavouring 
essences, to render the detection of the sources of the inferior 
vinegars very difficult. All the varieties of vinegar, save that 
obtained by means of the destructive distillation of wood, are 
formed by the oxidation of alcohol. This compound, however 
formed, whether by the direct fermentation of sugar or from 
starchy materials, may be readily oxidized, gaining one additional 
proportion of oxygen and losing two proportions of hydrogen. 
The oxidation of weak alcohol into acetic acid may be accom- 
plished by simple exposure of the liquid to warm air, but the 
change is usually accompanied and greatly aided by the presence 
of a vegetable organism such as yeast and the so-called vinegar- 
plant. 

Good vinegar contains 5 per cent, of real or glacial acetic 
acid. Sulphuric acid is sometimes found in it to a larger extent 
than allowed by law, which is 1 part in 1,000. A solution of 
chloride of barium produces a more or less dense white precipitate 
only in vinegar containing sulphuric acid. 

Case 108. Vinegar is extensively used not only as a condiment 
in sauces and salads, but for the preparation of a great variety of 
pickles. The vegetables thus preserved in vinegar include the 
greater number of those which we have described in the second 
part of this volume. Among them we may name unripe walnuts, 
onions, cauliflowers, gherkins, French beans, red cabbage, capsi- 
cums, samphire, mushrooms, and small unripe maize-cobs. Care 
should be taken that pickles are free from copper, a poisonous 
metal which sometimes finds its way into the vinegar through the 
solvent action of that acid upon the vessels used in preparing 
pickles. 

o 2 



196 TEA. ; 

§ 4. — Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa. 

The group of food-adjuncts which we are now about to study- 
is distinguished from all the preceding groups by the presence of 
a peculiar class of active principles called alkaloids. These con- 
tain the element nitrogen, which is absent from nearly all the 
essential oils, from all the kinds of alcohol, and from all the acids 
which occur in articles of food. Many of these alkaloids act 
powerfully on the nervous system, generally as sedatives and 
narcotics. Some of them' are not only medicinal, but, even in 
small doses, actually poisonous. But the action of tea, coffee, 
and of many other food-adjuncts which owe their properties mainly 
to the presence of certain alkaloids, is often greatly modified by 
the other constituents of these food-adjuncts. Tea, for instance, 
contains a fragrant essential oil which is stimulating; while the 
presence of tannin, an astringent substance, further modifies the 
general result produced by the theine contained in an infusion 
of tea.* 

We will first examine into the chemistry of the ordinary 
beverages — tea, coffee, cocoa, &c, which closely resemble one 
another in the peculiarity of their active alkaloids ; afterwards a 
few notes on tobacco and opium shall be given. 

Tea. 

French, The. German, Thee. Italian, Te. 
{Thea sinensis)) 

Cases 109 to 113. The plant which yields the tea of commerce is a 
native of Bengal : it is a shrub nearly allied to the camellia. It 
has been long grown in China, and may indeed be indigenous to 
parts of that empire. Our supplies come mainly from China, 
but a good deal of tea is grown in British India and in Japan. 

* A fine specimen of theine may be seen in the collection. 



TEA. 197 

There are three varieties of the tea-plant, from each of which 
both green and black tea may be prepared. Black tea is made 
from leaves which have been allowed to ferment before drying ; 
green tea from leaves which have been quickly dried. However, 
large quantities of tea are still artificially coloured or faced, 
though the practice is a very deceptive one, even where the 
colouring materials used are not injurious to health. Old leaves, 
damaged leaves, and exhausted or spent leaves may be so faced 
with black-lead, indigo, Prussian blue, French chalk, or turmeric, 
that a fictitious bloom is imparted to them ; and the four last-named 
materials are used in imitating or enhancing the tint of green tea. 
Different qualities of strength and flavour in tea are due to the 
varieties of the plant, to the soil and climate, to the age of the 
leaves, and to the mode of curing and drying them. The younger 
leaves yield teas of the highest quality and the most delicate 
flavour. These kinds contain more soluble matters than the older 
leaves. Black tea contains less theine, essential oil, and tannin 
than green tea. Exhausted or spent leaves and leaves which 
have been accidentally damaged by water are often re-dried, 
gummed, and faced with colouring matters ; such teas and those 
adulterated with mineral matters and the leaves of other plants, 
are known in China as lie tea. One good test of the genuineness 
of a sample of tea consists in crushing 100 grains, and boiling it 
with water till nothing more is thus extracted. When this liquor 
is boiled down to dryness, the residue of fixed soluble matters 
thus separated should weigh about 35 grains, certainly not less 
than 26, for in the latter event the sample consists of or contains 
damaged, spent, or old leaves.* 



* Dried specimens of varieties of the tea-plants cultivated in Assam, with 
numerous samples of prepared teas from Brazil, China, East Indies, Java, 
Formosa, Trinidad, Victoria (Australia), are shown in Cases 109 to 113. 
Samples of broken tea, consolidated by hydraulic pressure, are also shown, 
together with similar preparations of tea and coffee, to which milk and sugar 
have been added. 



198 COFFEE. 

Good average black tea, as imported, may be fairly represented 
by the following figures : — 



n ioo parts. 


In 


ilb. 




oz. 


gr- 


8-o 


I 


122 


2*5 


O 


175 


14- o 


2 


I05 


0-4 


O 


28 


15-0 


2 


175 


54 '4 


8 


308 


57 





399 



Water 
Theine - 

Tannin - 
Essential oil 
Minor extractives 
Insoluble organic matter 
Mineral matter - 



Although the infusion of tea has little actual nutritive value, 
it increases respiratory action and excites the brain to greater 
activity. The stimulating effects of tea upon the nervous system 
are due to the essential oil and the theine : the tannin is an 
astringent. It has been estimated that half the human race now 
use tea either habitually or occasionally. 

Coffee. 

French, Cafe. German, Kaffee. Italian, Caffe. 
(Coffea Arabic a.) 

The shrub or small tree which yields the seed coffee is 
a native of Abyssinia. This plant belongs to the Rubiacese, an 
extensive order, including the Peruvian bark, ipecacuanha, and 
madder plants. Coffee is now grown throughout the tropics. 
Our principal supplies* come from Ceylon, but Java, the West 
Indies, Brazil, and Central America produce large quantities. 

* Specimens of raw coffee berries, and branches of the coffee tree, are 
shown in Cases 114 and 115, together with samples of roasted coffee, coffee 
essence, and substitutes for and adulterants of genuine coffee. The specimens 
of coffee berries come from the following countries : Yemen (Mocha) ; 
Colombo, and other parts of Ceylon ; Neilgherry Hills, Bombay ; Cape Verde 
Islands, St. Thomas, Madeira, Costa Rica, Madras, Mozambique, Angola, 
Bahia, Venezuela, Java, Sandwich Islands ; and the French Colonies of 
Reunion, Martinique, Guiana, Guadaloupe, Gaboon, Senegal, ■ Tahiti, 
Pondicherry, and Mayotte. 



COFFEE. 199 

It appears that more than one distinct species of coffee plant 
yields the berries met with in commerce, and that the Coffea liberica 
is superior to the ordinary kind or variety. Originally the coffee 
plant was introduced into Arabia in the fifteenth century, while it 
was not till the year 1652 that the first coffee-shop was opened 
in London. 

The fruit of the coffee tree, which presents a superficial 
resemblance to a red cherry, contains two seeds. The soft pulp 
and the parchment-like covering of the seed having been removed, 
the imported coffee " beans," as they are now called, are roasted. 
Thus moisture is driven off and a fragrant oil produced, to a mere 
trace of which the strong aroma of roasted coffee is due. 

Many cheap vegetable matters, as acorns and chicory and 
parsnip roots, are used, when roasted, to adulterate ground coffee. 

Case 114. Roasted coffee generally contains — 

In 100 parts. In i lb. 

oz. gr. 

Water - - - - - - - 5'o ... o 350 

Albuminoids - - - - - - 15*0 ... 2 175 

Theine (Caffeine) - - - - - o*6 ... o 42 

Tannin -----_- 4/0 ... o 280 

Minor extractives 34*4 ... 5 220 

Cellulose- - - - - - - 38-4 ... 6 63 

Mineral matter - 4*6... o 322 

Coffee owes its stimulant effect on the circulatory and nervous 
systems to the theine and aromatic oil present. In order that 
coffee may be enjoyed in perfection, not only must it be free from 
admixture with the cheap and miserable adulterants commonly 
stated to improve its taste, but it must be freshly roasted to 
the right extent, freshly ground, and so made into a beverage that 
its soluble constituents are extracted without its aroma being 
dissipated. 

Cocoa. 

(Theobroma Cacao.) 

The chocolate tree occurs both wild and cultivated in the 



2oo COCOA. 

northern parts of South America, and also in Central America, as 
far north as Mexico. It is grown chiefly in Brazil, Guiana, and 
Trinidad. There are four species of Theobroma known. 

A single fruit of this tree contains many seeds closely packed 
in a little pulp. The cleaned cocoa seeds, after drying, roasting, 
and winnowing from their husks, are broken into coarse fragments 
known as nibs. These, after long boiling in water and removal of 
the floating cocoa-butter, yield a light beverage, milder in its 
action upon the respiratory and nervous system than tea or coffee. 

Case n6. Good cocoa-nibs contain — 



Water 

Albuminoids - 
Fat - 

Theobromine - 
Cacao-red 
Gum, &c. 

Cellulose and lignose 
Mineral matter - 



Theobromine is the active principle of cocoa ; the taste and 
aroma of cocoa are due mainly to an essential oil and to tannin. 
For general use cocoa is a milder and less stimulating beverage 
than tea or coffee. 

Prepared Cocoa. 

Most of the cocoa consumed in Europe is prepared for use 
by admixture with other substances, or by removing part of the 
fat or " cocoa-butter." Cocoa-nibs, if simply ground, would yield 
a rich but heavy food, not a beverage. It may, indeed, be shown 
that ioo parts of cocoa-nibs contain heat-givers equivalent to 
132 parts of starch, while the flesh-formers present amount to no 
less than 17 parts — the ratio of the latter to the former being thus 
as 1 to 8. One pound of cocoa-nibs might in fact produce as 
much as 2^ oz. of the dry nitrogenous substance of muscle. 



100 parts. 


In 


ilb. 




oz. 


gr- 


5'0 ». 


O 


350 


17*0 


2 


315 


51 -o ... 


8 


70 


i'5 ••• 





I05 


3'o .- 





2IO 


io - 9 


1 


326 


8-o ... 


1 


122 


3-6 -. 





252 



PARAGUAY TEA. 201 

The chief forms of prepared cocoa are — ■ 

Case n6. Soluble Cocoa. Mixtures of ground cocoa, with starch, 
&c, are called soluble cocoa. With boiling water a thick 
mucilage is produced, in which the finely-ground cocoa remains 
suspended — it does not dissolve. 

Chocolate is cocoa ground up with sugar and flavoured with 
vanilla, sometimes with bitter almonds as well, or with cinnamon 
and other spices ; it generally contains some starch or flour. 

Flake and Rock Cocoa are made from the whole seed, nib and 
husk being ground together to a paste. 

Pressed Cocoa (such as Van Houten's) is prepared from cocoa- 
nibs — a small proportion of the cocoa-butter having been pre- 
viously expressed so as to leave about 33 per cent. 

Mate, or Paraguay Tea. 
(Ilex paraguayensis^) 

Case 113. In Paraguay, North Corrientes, Chaco, and South 
Brazil, the leaves of a small tree are used just in the same way 
that tea is employed in China, India, and Japan. The infusion 
of these leaves contains tannin, an aromatic oil, and some theine. 
Indeed, it is a singular and most instructive fact that the chief 
characteristic constituent of tea, coffee, mate, guarana-bread, and 
the African kola nuts, is identical — the alkaloid theine or caffeine. 
Even cocoa contains a very nearly-related substance — theobro- 
mine. Naturally, all these plants have come into general use 
amongst the inhabitants of the countries where they flourish • and 
now it is ascertained that their chief physiological properties 
depend upon the presence of a substance which is identical in 
five of them, and closely allied in the sixth. 

Mate is prepared by drying, and then gently roasting the 
leaves, still attached to their stems and branches : the whole tree 
being often cut down for this purpose. When the drying and 



202 GUARANA-BREAD. 

roasting have rendered the leaf brittle, and developed the aromatic 
oil which gives the peculiar flavour and odour to mate, then the 
branches are removed to large rough mortars, which are merely 
pits dug in the ground, where it is beaten and bruised till the 
leaves are reduced to fragments. The mate, after sorting, is next 
placed in fresh bullock-skins, well rammed, and placed in the sun 
to dry. 

The composition of mate' is somewhat variable. Several sorts 
are known in the South American markets : caa-cuys, the head of 
the leaf; caa-miri, the leaf torn from its mid-rib and veins with- 
out roasting ; and caa-guaza, or yerva de J>alos of the Spaniards, 
which contains the whole leaf with leaf-stalks and small branches 
roasted. In consequence of these different qualities, and the 
crude mode of preparation in general use, it is found that the 
quantity of mineral matter in mate is twice as great in some 
samples as in others. The average amount of tannin may be set 
down as 1 6 per cent., while the theine is present to the extent of 
about i *3 per cent. 

Mate does not yield a wholesome beverage fit for habitual 
use. It acts upon the nervous system mainly, but it affects the 
digestive tract also, and often injuriously. The habitual use of 
hot, strong infusions of mate is very prejudicial to the general 
health, although the occasional employment of this food-adjunct 
after great fatigue is refreshing and restorative. But confirmed 
mate-drinkers, like opium-eaters, prefer to give up their food 
rather than their daily allowance of mate. 

Mate is prepared for drinking by pouring boiling water upon 
a teaspoonful of the powdered leaves in a cup or calabash, 
adding a little sugar, and sucking up the infusion through a 
small tube or " bombilla." 

Guarana-bread is another substitute for tea. It is used 
extensively in Brazil and other parts of South America. It is 
prepared from the seeds of a small climbing plant {Paullinia 
sorbilis). The seeds are roasted, ground, mixed with a little 



HERB TEAS. 203 

water, and pressed into sausage-like forms. Pieces broken from 
one of these rolls have merely to be infused in cold water to 
form a refreshing and grateful beverage, said also to be a valuable 
remedy in sick-headache. It contains no less than 5 per cent, of 
theine. 

Case 124. Coca, the leaves of Erythroxylon Coca, may perhaps 
be appropriately named in this section. This plant, which is 
used as a stimulant in Peru, contains an alkaloid called cocaine. 
It is believed to possess the power of sustaining strength and 
endurance during unusual bodily exertion. This plant, the coca, 
is perfectly distinct from the Cocos nucifei'a and the Theobroma Cacao. 

Case 113. Under the designation of " tea substitutes ,; we may 
group many vegetable products which are, or have been, used in 
different parts of the world. With the exception of the kola-nut 
of Central Africa, none of these minor tea-substitutes are known 
to contain the same alkaloid as tea, coffee, and mate. We name 
a few of the different plants yielding such herb teas.* 

Swiss tea, from several Alpine plants ; 

Bosjes and Boer tea {Cliffortia ilicifolia and Cyclopia vogelii) ; 

Hottentot tea (Helichrysum serpyllifolium) ; 

Mountain tea ( Gaultheria procumbens) ; 

Lime tea (flowers and leaves of Tilia europcea) ; 

Labrador tea {Ledum palustre and L. latifoliuni) ; 

Kola tea (nuts of Cola acuminata) ; 

Appalachian tea (Prinos glabe?-) ; 

Corossal tea (Anona muricata) • 

Sumatra tea (leaves of Coffea arabicd). 

§ 5. — Tobacco and Opium. 
Amongst the food-adjuncts we give the last and lowest place 

* Samples of the teas here named and of many other kinds are shown in 
Case 113. The specimens include New Jersey tea, Heidelberg tea, Siderita 
tea from Greece, Faham tea of Mauritius, and many substances used as tea in 
the French colonies of Reunion, Guiana, Guadaloupe, Gaboon, Martinique, 
and St. Pierre. 



204 TOBACCO. 

to tobacco and opium. If there be difficulty in fixing the exact 
position which we should assign to tea or to spices, such difficulty 
is more decided still in the case of tobacco. But although we 
cannot regard tobacco as a true food, we should remember that 
there are many circumstances under which really nutritious sub- 
stances cease to be nutritious. The work done by the various 
nutrients which we have considered is not always the same, for it 
varies with the quantities consumed, and the modes in which they 
are used. Thus a nutrient taken in excess may become, in part, 
at least, a food-adjunct j. while a food-adjunct may become a 
medicine or even a poison. Water itself affords a good illustration 
of some of these points. A due daily supply of it is necessary 
as a nutrient ; but a considerable excess of it will act medicinally, 
and it becomes hurtful and in some sense poisonous when still 
larger quantities are consumed. And we see that while all the 
true nutrients are equally necessary to the human body, provided 
that they are given in due proportion and quantity, the food- 
adjuncts have very variable values. Alcoholic liquors afford 
a characteristic instance of this fact. Taken in limited quantity, 
they may justly be regarded as belonging to that section of the 
food-adjuncts which perhaps best deserves the name of accessory- 
food. But it is too easy to pass this limit, and to change the 
office performed by alcohol into that of a poison. Tobacco and 
opium must be ranked either as medicines or poisons. Tobacco 
is the less baneful of the two, but its excessive use is followed by 
a disordered state of the nervous system, and may lead to 
dangerous and even fatal diseases. 

Tobacco. 

French, Tabac. German, Tabak. Italian, Tabaccho. 

(Nicotiana Tabacinn, and other species.) 

This plant furnishes the most generally used of all the 
narcotics. A native of America, it was introduced thence into 
many other parts of the world, and has been cultivated in Europe 



TOBACCO, 205 

for more than three centuries. Sir Walter Raleigh much promoted 
its use in England. In the year 1872 nearly 20,400 tons of 
unmanufactured tobacco were imported into this country, half of 
this quantity being from the United States of America. The 
duty paid on the tobacco for home consumption amounted to 
^£6,694,000 in the above-named year. 

It appears that there are several species of plants which yield 
the tobacco of commerce, although they are all included in the 
genus Nicotiana. The most abundant sort is furnished by 
N. Tabacum; N. rustica is said to yield the East Indian tobacco, 
as well as Latakia and Turkish ; while N. persica is the tobacco of 
Shiraz. Other species are N. quadrivalvis, JV. multivalvis, and 
N. repanda. But the distinctions between these plants, and the 
several sorts of prepared tobaccos which they are assumed to 
furnish, are not yet accurately known. 

Case 117. The composition of dried tobacco leaves varies 
greatly with the conditions of their growth, as well as with the sort 
of plant grown. The mineral matter is considerable (13 to 28 
per cent.) and includes much nitre, the presence of which gives 
to the dry leaf its peculiar property of slowly smouldering away 
with slight deflagrations, like amadou or tinder. The most 
important principle or constituent of tobacco is, however, the 
nicotine, a nitrogenous substance of the group of the alkaloids. 
This nicotine has a very powerful action upon the nervous system, 
being a narcotic, like the morphine, narcotine, &c, found in 
opium. Some of the more delicate tobaccos of Havannah contain 
less than 2 per cent, of nicotine; the stronger tobaccos, as 
Virginian shag, contain 6 per cent. As much as 10 per cent, has 
been found in some samples grown in Europe. When the 
tobacco is burnt in the operation of smoking, the nicotine is in 
great part destroyed, other volatile alkaloids (picoline, &c.) being 
produced from it. These are contained in the smoke, are liquid, 
like nicotine, and are also poisonous. The average amount of 
water in commercial tobacco is 13 per cent. 



206 OPIUM. 

The preparation of tobacco leaves for use by drying, fermen- 
tation, and other processes, alters very much their natural 
character and flavour. Sometimes various " liquors " and " spices " 
or " pickles " are used in this treatment of the leaves, different 
flavours being developed thereby. Snuff is prepared chiefly from 
the stalks and ribs of the tobacco leaf.* 

Opium. 

Case 124. Opium is the.dried latex or milky juice of the opium- 
poppy {Papaver somniferuni). It is procured by making cuts in 
her unripe capsule, and collecting the juice which exudes. The 
half-dried juice is moulded into small masses, and then finally 
covered with leaves of different plants, or with thin protective 
coverings of other materials, such as mica. The opium-poppy is 
extensively grown in Egypt, Asia Minor, Persia, Algeria, and the 
East Indies. The large Chinese demand for opium is supplied 
mainly from British India ; in the European market the best 
opium (known as Turkey or Smyrna opium) is the produce of 
Asia Minor. 

Opium contains a large number of different alkaloids or active 
principles, fifteen of these having been already described. The 
most important of these constituents is morphine, to which alka- 
loid most of the characteristic properties of opium are due. The 
quantities of morphine present in different samples of opium differ 
much: Smyrna opium sometimes contains as much as 14 and 
sometimes less than 7 per cent. Most of the alkaloids of opium 
are poisonous : thebaine is the most virulent. 

Opium is very valuable as a medicine, acting in small doses 

* Samples of tobacco in the raw and manufactured state, including snuff, 
cigars, cigarettes, negrohead, caven 'ish, &c, are shown in Cases 117 to 122. 
The samples are from the following countries : Brazil, Corsica, France, French 
Colonies, Germany, Greece, Havannah, Hungary, East Indies, Java, Kurdistan, 
New South Wales, Queensland, Sweden, Shiraz, Victoria, and United States 
of America. 



OPIUM. 207 

as a sedative and anodyne, alleviating pains, and producing a 
quiet sleep. When smoked, as in China and many other parts of 
the world, it is generally consumed with tobacco or some other 
leaf in a pipe.* Indeed, many of the Chinese tobaccos contain 
opium. It produces a peculiar soothing effect, but the habitual 
use of opium is most hurtful to mind as well as body. After all it 
is doubtful whether opium should find a place in a food-collection. 
The same observation applies also to hemp. 



* Chinese opium, opium-pipes, and prepared tobaccos are shown in 
Case 139 (see National Foods). 



2 o8 FOOD-EQUIVALENTS. 



PART V.-OF DIET AND DIETARIES. 



The work and offices performed by human food have been 
already discussed in the First Part of this hand-book. What we 
propose to describe in the few pages which remain at our dis- 
posal is the nature of various actual dietaries. But we will first 
look at the relative values of different constituents and articles of 
food before we pass on to consider how these food-materials are 
actually employed in the daily rations of individuals, of groups of 
persons engaged in similar occupations, and of nations. 



§ i. — Food-equivalents. 

As several different kinds of compound nutrients are necessary 
to sustain life and activity, to calculate the amount of carbon and 
the amount of nitrogen, &c, in a day's ration will not alone 
suffice to show the dietetic value of that ration. We must first of 
all be sure that the carbon and the nitrogen are present in such 
forms as are practically available for nutrition. This being the 
case, we may assume that about 75 per cent, of the fat present in 
a dietary is carbon ; 42 per cent, of the other heat-givers, and 
53 per cent, of the flesh-formers, also consisting of the same 
element. If we take the hydrogen of all these nutrients into 



CARBON IN A DAY'S FOOD. 



209 



account, and calculate it into its equivalent quantity (so far as 
heat-giving power is concerned) of carbon, we shall find that all 
the above figures must be increased. It will not lead us into 
serious error if we assume that hydrogen is equivalent to thrice 
its weight of carbon. Thus we may calculate the weight of carbon 
or its equivalent in any given daily allowance of food of which 
the composition is known. As the nitrogenous nutrients contain 
on an average nearly 16 per cent, of nitrogen, the quantity of this 
element present in a day's ration may also be ascertained without 
difficulty. Now, an adult man weighing 154 lb. will require — under 
ordinary conditions of living, and if performing a fair amount of 
work and taking moderate exercise — something like the following 
amounts per diem : — 

Of carbon ... - 4,900 grains. 

Of nitrogen .... 300 „ 

These, at least, are round numbers easily remembered and useful 
for our present purpose — the calculation of food-equivalents ; that 
is, the weights of different kinds of food which can furnish in an 
available form the above amounts of carbon and of nitrogen. 

Case 125. The following table shows approximately the quantities 
of various vegetable and animal products which would be capable 
of furnishing the supply of carbon requisite for one day : — 

lb. oz. 

1. Bacon - - 10 

2. Scotch oatmeal I 9 

3. Ripe dry peas - 1 10 

4. Cleaned rice - - - - - - -in 

5. Gloucester cheese Ill 

6. Wheaten flour - I 13 

7. Wheaten bread ------- 2 8 

8. Eggs, mixed yolks and whites - - - - 5 3 

9. Potatoes 6 6 

10. Lean of beef 66 

11. Cows' milk 8 11 

12. White turnips - - - - - - -200 

P 



2io FOOD AS A FORCE-PRODUCER. 

The necessary nitrogen for one day would be furnished by- 



1. Gloucester cheese 

2. Ripe dry peas - - - 

3. Scotch oatmeal - 

4. Eggs, mixed yolks and whites 

5. Lean of beef 

6. Wheaten flour - 

7. Bacon - 

8. Cleaned rice [ - 

9. Wheaten bread 

10. Cows' milk - - - - 

11. Potatoes - 

12. White turnips - 



lb. 


oz. 





15 


I 


3 


I 


10 


2 





2 


1 


2 


8 


3 


4 


3 


7 


3 


13 


6 


8 


24 





54 


4 



A glance at the preceding table will show that no one article 
of food taken alone can furnish the exact quantities, both of 
nitrogen and of carbon requisite for the day's nourishment ; cows' 
milk, however, occupies nearly the same position in both sections 
of the table. Potatoes, on the other hand, are so deficient in 
available nitrogen that nearly four times the weight of these 
tubers necessary to furnish the requisite quantity of carbon must 
be eaten in order that the former element may be taken in 
sufficient amount. To bring out the full meaning of the preceding 
table it should be studied in connection with the two tables 
which we now proceed to give. 

The qua?itities of different articles of food requisite for a day's 
ration, so far as the important elements, nitrogen and carbon, are 
respectively concerned, having been now discussed, we may 
proceed to consider the relative amounts of work producible from 
1 lb. of different important articles of food. The following table 
contains the results furnished by some of Dr. Frankland's 
experiments : — 



Name of food. 


Tons raised 


Name of food. 


Tons raised 




1 ft. high. 




1 ft. high. 


Beef fat - 


- 5,649 


Oatmeal - 


- 2,439 


Butter 


" 4,507 


Arrowroot starch 


-' 2,427 


Cheshire cheese - 


" 2,704 


Wheaten flour - 


" 2,383 



FOOD AS A FORCE-PRODUCER. 



Name of food. 


Tons raised 


Name of food. 


Tons raised 




i ft. high. 




1 ft. high. 


Pea meal - 


- 2,341 


Lean of veal 


726 


Ground rice 


- 2,330 


Guinness's stout- 


■ " 665 


Gelatin 


- 2,270 


Potatoes - 


6l8 


Cane sugar 


- 2,077 


Whiting - 


491 


Yolk of egg 


- 2,051 


Bass's ale - 


480 


Grape sugar 


- 2,033 


Apples 


400 


Hard-boiled egg 


- 1,415 


Milk 


390 


Bread crumb 


- 1,333 


White of egg 


- 357 


Lean of boiled ham - 


- 1,041 


Carrots 


• . - 322 


Mackerel - 


- 1,000 


Cabbage - 


261 


Lean of beef - ' - 


- 885 







We may here remind the reader that the greatest amount of 
work outside the body which the oxidation within the body of 
1 lb. of each of the above substances could enable a man to 
perform, would be about one-fifth of the amounts mentioned in 
the above list. 

The relative cost of the several quantities of the above sub- 
stances which would contain the same energy, and so be capable 
of performing the same amount of work, is given in the following 

Table of the weight and cost of various articles of food 
required to be oxidized in the body, in order to raise i40 lb. 
to the height of 10,000 feet : — 



Name of food. 




Weight in lb. 


Price per lb. 
s. d. 
O 2 


Ground rice 


. 


I *34I 


Bread 


- 


2 '345 


O 1% 


Oatmeal - 


- 


1-281 


O 2% 


Flour 


- 


1-311 


O 1% 


Pea meal - 


- 


1 '335 


3X 


Potatoes - 




5-068 


1 


Beef fat - 


- 


- 0-555 


10 


Commercial grape sugar 


1*537 


3% 


Cod-liver oil 


- 


o'553 


1 2 


Cane sugar 


- 


i-5o5 


4 


Cocoa-nibs 


- 


0735 


1 


Cheshire cheese 


- 


1-156 


10 


Apples 


- 


- 7-8i5 


1% 


Cabbages - 


- 


I2'020 


1 


Butter 


- 


0-693 


1 6 



Cost. 
;. d. 



1% 

5% 

lU 

8K 

11^ 

n^r 

1 oX 

1 0% 
p 2 



212 FOOD AS A FORCE-PRODUCER. 

Name of food. Weight in lb. Price per lb. Cost. 

s. d. s. d. 

Carrots - 9 '685 o 1^ 12^ 

Hard-boiled eggs - - 2*209 06^ 12^ 

Milk - - - - 8*021 o 5 per quart I 3^ 

Arrowroot - - - 1*287 10 1 3j£ 

Mackerel - 3* I2 4 08 21 

Guinness's stout - - 6^ bottles o 6 per bottle 3 4% 

Lean beef- - - - 3'53 2 I ° 3 6 >£ 

Lean veal- - - - 4*3°° * ° 4 3>£ 

White of egg - - - 8*745 ° 6 4 4/^ 

Bass's pale ale -• - - 9 bottles 06 „ 46 

Lean ham, boiled - - 3*001 16 46 

Whiting - 6*369 14 94 

Isinglass - - - - 1*377 16 o 22 o^ 

The above table does not take the element nitrogen into 
account ; and thus many articles of food which appear the most 
economical, are quite unequal to the task of supplying the whole 
needs of the body. Beef-fat, for instance, is destitute of nitrogen, 
or nearly so, while on the other hand pea-meal contains too large 
a proportion to be utilised completely were this article of food to 
be consumed alone. But a reference to preceding pages of this 
volume, especially to the data given under the analyses of the 
several foods as to the ratio. of flesh-formers to heat-givers, will 
enable the reader to obtain the necessary information for the 
complete comprehension of this table; he will then be in a 
position so to adjust the proportion of the several articles of food 
to one another as to construct useful dietaries in which there 
will be no marked excess of carbon over nitrogen, or of nitrogen 
over carbon — that is, no marked excess beyond the quantities 
respectively required of each element. 

In the above table the force-producing value of the fermented 
liquors named is exaggerated, for the alcohol they contain is very 
imperfectly utilised in the body. 



PUBLIC DIETARIES. 213 

§ 2. — Public Dietaries. 

The experience of governments and local authorities in the 
supply of food to persons depending upon dietaries furnished at 
the public cost, has led to very conclusive results as to the nature 
and amount of nutrients requisite for varying amounts of work 
and for various conditions of bodily health. The dietaries of the 
army and navy, as well as of hospitals, prisons, and workhouses, 
will generally be found to correspond with the amount and 
character of the work demanded from the persons concerned. 
In the former " Inventory of the Food Collection " the following 
figures are given as representing the nitrogenous, or flesh-forming 
nutrients, and the carbon in the daily diet of soldiers, sailors, 
pensioners, and other persons subsisting on public or ascertainable 
dietaries. 

Case 126. 1. The English soldier requires, both in this country 
and in India, about 5 oz. of flesh-formers in his daily food j he 
must receive likewise 1 o oz. of carbon. 

2. The English sailor receives 5 oz. of flesh-formers and 
10 oz. of carbon. 

3. The English sailor, in his salt-meat dietary, receives nearly 
6 oz. of flesh- formers daily, and 12 oz. of carbon. These larger 
amounts may be necessary owing to the less digestible nature of 
his food. 

4. The Dutch soldier, in war, receives daily 5 oz. of flesh- 
formers with 10^ oz. of carbon. 

5. The Dutch soldier, in peace, or in garrison, has a lower diet, 
containing only 3% oz. of flesh-formers and 10 oz. of carbon. 
With this diet he is below fighting condition. 

6. The French soldier, although his diet is made up with 
articles of food very different from those eaten by the English 
soldier, receives nearly the same amount of flesh-formers — 4^ 
oz., with 12 oz. of carbon. The French soldier is thus always 
kept in fighting condition. 



2i 4 PUBLIC DIETARIES. 

7. The Royal Engineers, when occupied in the South Ken- 
sington Museum, were found to eat an amount of food contain- 
ing 4 T \ oz. of flesh-formers, and 13 oz. of carbon daily. 

When the sailor or soldier retires from active work he 
naturally requires less amounts of flesh-forming and heat-giving 
nutrients in his food. It is found, however, that the carbon 
actually consumed is but little lower under these circumstances. 
Paupers in workhouses, of whom but little labour is expected, 
require less flesh-formers and carbon than active soldiers and 
sailors and artisans. Boys. 10 years of age, at school, receive 
about half the flesh-formers required by active men, and about 
three-fourths the quantity of carbon. Ladies in luxurious repose 
consume about the same amount as young schoolboys. It must 
always be remembered that flesh-formers can be, and constantly 
are, used in the human body as force -producers ; but, on the 
other hand, the heat-givers or force- producers (starch, sugar, and 
fat) cannot be applied to the formation of flesh. The dietaries of 
some of the classes of persons named in this paragraph are 
illustrated below : 

Case 127. 8. Greenwich pensioners receive 3 }4 oz. of flesh- 
formers and 1 o oz. of carbon in their daily rations. 

9. The Chelsea pensioners have 4 oz. of flesh-formers and 
9^ oz. of carbon. 

10. The old men of Gillespie's Hospital, Edinburgh, have 3 oz. 
of flesh-formers and 10 oz. of carbon daily. 

11. Paupers in our workhouses receive, on the average, 
3^ oz. of flesh-formers and 8% oz. of carbon only. 

12. The boys of Christ's Hospital in London receive 2)4 oz. 
of flesh-formers and 7 oz. of carbon daily. 

It will be instructive to give the details of a few other dietaries 
in a somewhat different and more extended form. In the table 
which follows, we show the amounts of flesh-formers and of the 
two chief groups of heat-givers in eight dietaries of widely dif- 
ferent characters. No great degree of accuracy is attainable in 



FOOD AND HARD WORK. 215 

suck tables, but the figures we have adopted will be found near 
enough to the truth for our present purpose. It may be repeated 
here that it requires about 4 oz. 150 gr. of albuminoids to furnish 
300 gr. of nitrogen. 

Cases 12s and 129. The daily rations of Public Dietaries will 
contain about the following quantities of — 

nt _ Albuminoids. Fat. Q Star< *> MIn f raI 

Diet. Sugar, &c. maiter. 

oz. gr. oz. gr. oz. gr. oz. gr. 

Prisoners' Punishment) t . ... 8 70 ... o 162 

( = ilb. bread) -) 

Prisoners for seven clays ] 

(=1 lb. bread and > 1 350 ... o 210 ... 10 312 ... o 262 

% lb. oatmeal) - - ) 
Subsistence or famine 
Prisoners' light labour 
Prisoners' hard labour 
Healthy adults with mo- ) 

derate exercise - -J 
Hard-working artisans 
Navvies, blacksmiths, \ 

and others working > 5 

very hard - - - ) 

The above numbers illustrate the necessity for largely-increased 
quantities of nitrogenous compounds or flesh-formers when really 
heavy work has to be done. Practical experience points unmis- 
takably to this conclusion, but it is not yet clearly ascertained in 
what way these greater quantities and higher proportions of nitro- 
genous matter are utilised in the body. As the albuminoids may 
perform many functions, we are at a loss to know upon which of 
these functions there is the most decisive call during hard bodily 
labour. The notion that the nitrogenous constituents of muscle 
are extensively consumed during hard work is inexact ; but it is 
probable that the non-nitrogenous heat-givers and force-producers 
cannot do their work fully unless there be a commensurate 
increase in the amount of flesh-formers which accompany them. 
Muscles which have to be exercised or used much increase, re- 
quiring for that increase additional supplies of flesh-formers 



2 
3 
4 


145 •• 
222 .. 

36 •• 


. 
. 1 


368 . 
138 • 

244 . 


.. 11 
.. 16 
.. 18 


302 . 
3i8 • 

353 • 


.. 
.. 1 


280 

25 

145 


4 


94 - 


. 1 


174 • 


.. 11 


302 . 


.. 


312 


5 


35 - 


,. 2 


400 . 


.. 22 


96 .. 


. 


408 


5 


280 .. 


. 2 


150 . 


.. 20 


180 .. 


. 


420 



2i6 NATIONAL FOODS. 

over and above those used for other purposes in the nutrition 
of the body. 

We have not space to discuss the dietaries of children and 
invalids, and of athletes in training, although these subjects are 
important and interesting particularly through the light which 
they derive from chemical and physiological investigations- 
Attempts have been made to prepare foods suitable for infants 
from the common bread-stuffs by converting much of their starch 
into dextrin and glucose. This has been done by heat or by the 
Case 9 6. action of malt. Still, there is often a deficiency of 
flesh-formers in such substitutes for mothers' milk. In the die- 
taries considered suitable for invalids, attempts have been made 
to devise food-preparations from which certain nutrients are- 
Case 39. wholly excluded. For diabetic patients gluten bread 
and biscuits, bran biscuits, as well as cakes made with sweet 
almonds and eggs, have been prepared. In such preparations 
both starch and sugar are partially or wholly excluded. Fluid- 
Case 77. extract of meat is another article which is capable of 
being used in conjunction with the above vegetable preparations 
so as to complete the dietary of a day. This extract must not 
be confused with Liebig's Extract, which is a stimulant and 
restorative, not a nutrient or substantive food. The fluid extract 
of meat contains all the constituents of lean meat in a soluble 
condition : indeed, an artificial process of digestion has been- 
already accomplished before the material is consumed as food. 

§ 3. — National Foods. 

It must not be imagined that the vegetable or animal products 
which are used as the staple articles of food in different countries 
are in all instances perfectly adapted to the needs of the 
inhabitants. Some at least of the national foods and dietaries 
are too bulky, and thus lead to an excessive distension of the 
stomach and abdominal viscera. Such a result may ensue, if 
twice, thrice, or four times as much as is necessary of the other 



NATIONAL FOODS. 217 

nutrients has to be eaten in order to provide the requisite quantity 
of flesh-formers. But we may often trace several elements at 
work in the construction of national dietaries. Besides the local 
peculiarities of the vegetable and animal foods which are most 
abundant and attainable, we have the influence of those instinctive 
appetites for particular articles of food, which certainly exist 
however difficult of explanation they may be. Religious or super- 
stitious usages are also most important factors in the result in 
many instances, although they will not always serve to explain the 
abstention from certain perfectly wholesome and nutritious foods, 
or the consumption of absolutely noxious or useless materials like 
clay. But this aspect of the subject before us, though interesting 
as a study, could not be discussed without entering into very 
voluminous details as to the curiosities of food. We may, how- 
ever, give a few illustrative examples of national foods, citing 
those which are in common use in India, China, Japan, and 
Siam. 

Cases 1 30 to 132. Indian Foods. These include cereal grains, 
pulse, salep, arrowroot, fungi, oils, sugar, coffee, condiments, 
spices, and narcotics. 

Cases 133 to i 39 . Chinese Foods. These include wines and spirits, 
oils, confectionery, preserved fruits and vegetables, dried fruits and 
grains, bamboo shoots preserved, cinnamon and cassia buds, 
tobacco, teas and flowers for scenting them, brick-tea, gelatinous 
substances, condiments and spices ; nor must we omit pipes for 
tobacco and opium smoking, chopsticks, &c. Amongst these 
products may be noted soy and an oil prepared from the soy bean ; 
tea-seed oil; cakes not unlike some of those made by European 
confectioners; various preserved fruits and vegetables in sealed 
canisters — for in the art of thus preserving such perishable pro- 
ducts, the Chinese have long been skilful. The Chinese preserve 
some of their fruits, roots, flowers, &c, in brine or salt ; some in 
treacle, and some in sugar. Arrowroot is largely made from the 
root of a water-lily in China, in the Tae-hoo lake districts. Amongst 



2iS ANCIENT FOODS. 

•other Chinese foods, we may name several kinds of sea-weed, fish- 
maws, trepang, beche-de-mer, sharks' fins, and edible birds'-nests. 

Cases 140 to 143. Japanese Foods. Amongst these are wheat, rice, 
and many other cereals ; gelose, a gummy substance prepared 
from seaweed, gelatinous in character, but free from nitrogen ; 
dried and salted fish ■ sea-slugs, confectionery, &c. &c. 

Cases 144, 145. Siamese Foods. Amongst these may be named 
various beans and seeds, ground nuts, betel nuts, sugars, tobaccos, 
spices, dried fish, dried meat, fish-maws, edible birds'-nests, sea- 
slugs, sharks' fins, and deer sinews. 

§ 4. — Ancient Foods. 

The tombs of Egypt have furnished us with specimens of 
grain and other products consumed as food by the ancient in- 
habitants. Olive oil has been found still liquid in a vase carefully 
closed up, which was recently discovered at Thebes ; but the 
statement as to wheat, from a mummy case, having germinated is 
not authenticated. The best insight into the food of Roman 
towns and times is furnished by the wonderful series of vegetable 
products discovered from time to time at Pompeii, and now for the 
most part preserved in the National Museum at Naples. This 
collection includes even loaves of bread, blackened by the separa- 
tion of their carbon, yet still retaining their shape, and inscribed 
with details of their manufacture. Were such tangible evidence 
of the nature of ancient Roman food wanting, we should still be 
able to obtain some acquaintance with the subject from the descrip- 
tive writings which are extant, and from the pictorial representa- 
tions of articles of food which remain on the walls of the Pompeian 
houses. But even in England we find relics of Roman food in 
the bones of the pig, and in the oyster, mussel, and snail shells 
which abound near our Roman stations. Similar evidence with 
regard to other ancient European peoples is afforded by the waste 
heaps or kitchen middens so abundant in some parts of the 



ANCIENT FOODS. 219 

Continent, in the debris of bones discovered during recent years 
in many caves once inhabited by man, and in the lake-dwellings 
of Switzerland, Savoy, and Denmark. In these last instances the 
Case 146. evidence of the use of many fruits and grains has been 
furnished by the perfect preservation of these substances. Fish- 
hooks have also been found, together with other proofs of the use 
of animal foods. One of the most productive of all the Swiss lakes 
is that of Pfafhkon, in the canton of Zurich. Here remains of 
many kinds of food were disinterred from the peat of the lake- 
dwellings of Robenhausen. These lake-dwellings were built on 
piles, covered above with planking. In the case of some of these 
structures, no evidence of the use of metals by their builders has 
been detected ; they belong to a stone age, locally anterior to 
those of bronze and iron. The food remains of these very early 
inhabitants of Europe are of high interest. 











INDEX. 








PAGE 


PAGE 


Acids ." ' . . . .* I93 


Beer 169 


Adulteration of bread 




69 


Beetroot. 






• 93 


Aerated bread 


6 


7>6 9 


Bilberry . 






117 


Albumen 




• 41 


Birds'-nests, edible 






157 


„ in human body 




4 


Biscuits . 






7i 


Albuminoids 




41 


Bitter-almond oil 






191 


,, digestion of 


. 44 


Blackberry 






117 


„ as force-producers 


47 


Black currant 






116 


„ uses of 


46 


Blood . 






155 


Alcohol . . ^ 




169 


Bran 






64 


,, . in wines 


\ 




176 


Brandy . . . 






180 


Allspice 


■ 

i 




189 


Brazil-nuts 






131 


Angelica 








190 


Bread. 






65 


Animal foods 




\ 




132 


„ adulteration c 


)f 




69 


Anise 








187 


„ aerated 




67, 69 


Apple oil 








192 


„ fermented 




66, 69 


Apples . 








"3 


,, fruit 




. 125 


Apricots 
Arrowroot 








120 

27 


„ substitutes 
„ unfermented 




. 70 
67, 69 


Asses'- milk 








. 135 


Brewing 




. 172 


Australian meats 






166 


Buckwheat 
Burgundy 




. 81 
• 177 


Bacon . 






161 


Butchers' meat 




. 148 


Baking powder 






6 7 


Butter . 




• 139 


Bananas 






123 








Barberry 








117 


Cabbage 




• 97 


Barley . 








74 


Candle-nuts . 




• 131 


Bearberry 








117 


Cane sugar 




. 29 


Beef . 








153 


Capers . 






187 



INDEX. 



221 



Caraway 






PAGE 
. I90 


Crabs . 


PAGE 
. l6l 


Carbon in daily food 




. 209 


Cranberries 


. 117 


Cardamons 




. I89 


Cream . 


• . 136 


Carlowitz 






• 177 


Cress 


• I07 


Carob beans 






• 123 


Cucumbers 


. Ill 


Carrots . 






• 91 


Cumin . 


. . I87 


Cartilage 






• 44 


Currants, black,, red, >anc 


white .116 


Casein . 






. 42 


,, dried 


. 118 


Cassava . 






• 27 






Cassia . 






. 189 


Daily food 


. 48, 208 


Caviare . 






. 160 


,, supply . 


• , 53 


Celery . 






. 108 


,, waste . 


• 54 


Cellulose 






• 38 


Dairy produce . . 


. - . 132 


Cereals . 






• 57 


Dari 


. 80 


Champagne 






• 177 


Dates 


. 122 


Cheese . 






142 


Deep-well water 


. 16 


Chervil . 






187 


Dextrin . 


". 29 


Cherries . 






118 


Diet 


. 213 


Chick peas 






84 


Dietaries, public 


. 213, 216 


Chives . 






188 


Digestion of albuminoids 


. 44 


Cinnamon 






189 


Dika bread 


. 130 


Citrons . 






125 


Dill 


- .187 


Claret . 






177 






Cleaned rice 






77 


Eggs . 


. 146 


Cloves . 






1 89 


Elastin . 


• 44 


Coca 






203 


Elderberries . 


• 117 


Cocoa . 






199 


Elements 


• 3 


Coco-nut 






129 


,, in human body. 


. 6 


Coco-nut, doul 


)le . 




131 


Endive . 


. 108 


Coffee . 






198 


Eschalote 


. 188 


Compounds 






3 






Condensed mil 


k . 




137 


Fat . . . 


• 34 


Condiments . 






184 


,, in foods . 


• 35 


Conger eels . 






159 


, , in human body . 


• 4 


Coniferin 






191 


Fibrin . 


. 42 


Consumption o 


f. spirits , 




183 


,, in human body 


* 4 


Coriander 






190 


Figs . . 


. 121 


Cornflour 




27, 79 


Filberts .... 


. 127 


Cost of food . 




. 


211 


Filters . . 


. 20 



222 


INDEX. 








PAGE 




Flavourers 


. IQO 


Inulin . . 


Flesh-formers . 


. • H 


Irish moss 




Food and fuel compared 


1 






„ adjuncts 


. 168 


Jaggary . 




,, ancient . 


. 218 


Jak fruit . 




,, as a force-producer 


. 210 


Japanese foods 




,, Chinese. 


. 217 






,, classification of 


• 9 


Lamb 




,, Indian . 


. 217 


Lead in water 






„ Japanese 


. 218 


Leaven . 






,, national 


.' 216 


Lemon oil 






,, Siamese 


. 218 


Lentils . 






,, uses of . 


h 55 


Lettuce . 






French beans . 


. 85 


Lignose . 






Frogs 


. 158 


Limes 






Fruits . 


. 112 


Liqueurs 






Fungi . . . . 


. 102 


Liquorice 
Liver, calves' 






Garlic . 


. 188 


London water-supply 


Gin ... 


. 179 




Gloucester cheese . 


- • 144 


Macaroni 


Gluten . . . ■ . 


. 65 


Mace 






Glycerides 


• 35 


Madeira . 






Goats' milk . 


• i35 


Maize . 






Grapes . 


, 117 


Malt . 






Gum 


. 37 


Mannite. 






Haricots 


. 85 


Maple sugar 






Haemoglobin . 


4, 42 


Mares' milk 






Heat-givers . 


26, 20S 


Marjoram 






Herrings 


. 159 


Meat 






Hickory-nuts . 


. 129 


,, fluid extract of 


Hock . 


. 177 


,, Liebig's extract of . 


Honey . 


- 33 


Medlars . 


Hops 


. 171 


Milk . 


Human body, compositio 


n of . 3 


,, adulteration of 
Millet . 


Iceland moss . 


. 103 


Mill products . 


Indian foods . 


. 217 


Mineral matter in food . 


Inosite . 


- 34 


Mint . 









INDEX. 


223 




PAGK 




PAGE 


Mucilage 


• 37 


Peptones 


. 44 


Mucin .... 


. 44 


Pickles . 


• 195 


Mushrooms 


. 1 02 


Pigs' milk 


• 135 


Mustard .... 


. 184 


Pike 


• 159 


Mutton .... 


. 151 


Pistachio-nuts 


. 128 






Phosphate of lime in fooc 


1 . 25 


National foods 


. 216 


Plums 


. Il8 


Nitrogen in daily food 


. 210 


Pomegranates . 


. 125 


Nitrogenous matter /. 


. 40 


Pork . 


• 153 


Nutmegs 


. 189 


Port . '. 


• 177 






Porter . 


- 173 


Oatmeal. 


• 73 


Potash salts in food 


. 25 


Oats .... 


. 72 


Potatoes. 


. 88 


Oil or fat in foods . ., 


• 35 


Potato starch . 


. 27 


Oils and fats . 


• 34 


Poultry and game . 


• 155 


Olive .... 


. 129 


Preserved meats 


. 161, 164 


Onions .... 


. 94 


,, milk 


• 137 


Opium .... 


. 206 


Prickly pear . 


. 125 


Oranges 


. 124 


Prisoners' diet 


• 215 


Organic matter in water . 


. 12 


Proof spirit . 


. 169 


Ossein .... 


• 43 


Ptyalin . 


. 42 


,, in human body . 


• 4 


Public dietaries 


. 213, 215 


Oswego .... 


. 79 


Pulse . 


. 82 


Oysters .... 


. 160 










Radish . 


. 107 


Paddy .... 


. 76 


Rain water 


• 14 


Pale ale . 


• 173 


Raspberries 


. 116 


Palm-nuts 


. 131 


Rations t 


[9, 5i, 213 


Paupers' diet . 


. 214 


Red currants . 


. 116 


Pea-nuts. 


. 87 


Residues of water . 


. 11 


Pears „. . ... 


. 114 


Rhubarb 


. 120 


„ essence of 


. 192 


Rice . 


. 76 


Peas . 


. 82 


River water . 


• i5 


Pea soup 


. 84 


Roots and tubers 


■ 8 7 


Pectose . 


• 37 


Rum . 


. 181 


Pensioners' diet 


. 214 


Rye . 


• 75 


Pepper ..... 


. 1S5 






Peppermint . 


. 190 


Saffron . . . . 


. 192 


Pepsin. . 


42, 44 


Sago . 


. 27 



224 


INDEX. 






PAGE 




PAGE 


Sailors' diet . 


• 213 


Surface wells . 


■ 15 


Salads . 


. IO6 


Sweetbread 


• 154 


Salep 


. 27 


Sweet potatoes 


• 95 


Salmon . 


• iS9 


Swiss lake-dwellers, food of .219 


Salt 


. 24 






,, in water . 


. 13 


Tarragon 


. 188 


Salts in food . 


. 23 


Tartaric acid . 


. .194 


Samphire 


. 108 


Tea 


. . 196 


Sapucaia-nuts . 


- 131 


„ substitutes 


• 203 


Savory . 


. 188 


Tobacco 


. 204 


Seakale . 


. .99 


Tomatoes 


. IOI 


Sewage-pollution of 


water . 1 9 


Tripe 


• -154 


Shaddock 


.125 


Turnips . 


. 90 


Shallot . 


.188 


Turtle 


. 157 


Sheep's milk . 


• 135 






Sherry . 


. 177 


Vanilla . 


. 191 


Siamese foods . 


. 218 


Veal 


• . 153 


Skim milk 


• 137 


Vegetable foods 


• 57 


Soap wasted by har 


d water . 18 


,, marrow . 


. 100 


Softening water 


. 21 


Vinegar . 


. 194 


Soldiers' diet . 


. . • 213 






Soles . 


• 159 


Walnuts. 


. 126 


Sorrel . 


. 108 


Watercress 


. no 


Spices . 


. 188 


Water, filtration of 


. 19 


Spinach . 


. . 98 


,, in human body 


. 4 


Spirits . 


. . 178 


,, in food 


. 10 


Spring water . 


. 17 


,, hardness of. 


. . 17 


Starch . 


. 26 


,, softening of. 


. 21 


,, in foods 


. 28 


„ supply 


. 14 


Strawberry 


. 116 


' Wheat . 


. . 58 


Succory . 


. 108 


,, grain, structure 


of . 61 


Sugar 


.. 29 


Whisky . 


. 181 


Sugar from rags 


• ' -33 


Wine 


.174 


,, millet . 


• 30 






„ uses of . 


. 32 


Yam . 


. . 9 6 




THE 


END. 





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8 South Kensington Museum Handbook Advertiser, November, 1876. 



£10,000 worth of good BLACK SILKS, 24 inches 
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In the Easter, Midsummer, and Christmas Holidays Six Elementary 
lectures.on Geology and Palseontology (adapted to a Juvenile Audience) 

Will be delivered by Prof. Tennant, at his residence, 149, Strand, W.C., at 10 a.m. 
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Mineral Composition of Strata. — Arenaceous, Argillaceous, Calcareous. — Chronological 
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to each great deposit. 

Tertiary, or Cainozoic Series.^ — Cave-Deposits, Crag, Isle of Wight and Bagshot 
series, London Clay, Woolwich beds. 

Secondary, or Mesozoic Series. — Cretaceous, Wealden, Oolitic (Upper, Middle, and 
Lower), Triassic Groups. 

Primary, or Paleozoic Series. — Permian, Carboniferous, Devonian, Silurian, and 
Cambrian Groups. 

The mode of collecting, cleaning, and arranging Fossils, Minerals, and Bock-specimens 
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adapted to FACILITATE the Study OP GEOLOGY AND OF MINEBAL SUB- 
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Adhesion to the Tongue, Magnetic and Electric Properties, Phosphorescence, Specific 
Gravity. 

Chemical Characters. — Use of the Blowpipe, Action of Acids, &c. 
The principal simple Minerals will be next separately considered, and the readiest 
mode of distinguishing them described. The following is the order adopted : — 

A. Earthy Minerals, — Bock-Crystal, Amethyst, Cairngorm, Avanturine, Cafc's-eye, 
Opal, Chalcedony, Flint, Onyx, Agate, Carnelian, Heliotrope, Jasper, Hornstone, Chert, 
Garnet, Idocrase, Axinite, Epidote, Augite, Hornblende, Asbestos, Tremolite, Actinolite, 
Felspars, Zeolites, Mica, Talc, Chlorite, Calcite, Fluor, Selenite, Baryta, Strontia, Salt, 
Cryolite, &c. 

B. Combustible Minerals.— Sulphur, Bitumen, Coal, Jet, Amber, &c. 

C. Minerals used in Jewe^.— Diamond ; coloured varieties of Corundum — Sapphire, 
Euby, Topaz— called Oriental Stones ; Spinal, Turquoise, Topaz, Emerald, Beryl 
Hyacinth, Tourmaline, Lapis-lazuli, &c. 

D. The Metalliferous Minerals will be fully described in the Practical Course. 

The Course of Instruction will include a minute description of all the substances 
entering into the composition of Eocks, and of those Minerals which are also used in 
the Arts, illustrated by an extensive collection of characteristic specimens and diagrams 
of the principal crystalline forms, &c. - 

The above Lectures commence at King's College early in October and end at Christmas. 

To be followed by Lectures on Eocks and Metallic Minerals. 

The Lectures delivered on the subject of Geological Mineralogy are intended to have 
especial reference to the important practical applications of that science to Engineering, 
Mining, Architecture, and Agriculture. The Granites, Syenites, Porphyries, Green- 
stones, Clays, &c, will be described, and the Minerals peculiar to each noticed. 

The application of Geology to pursuits connected with mining operations for Coal, 
Iron, Copper, Tin, Silver, Gold, Mercury, Antimony, Zinc, Cobalt, &c, will be specially 
considered. The student is directed how to proceed in the examination of a new 
country, how to collect and record his observations, and to mark his specimens, in order 
to render them useful to more experienced Geologists at home. 

In order more fully to exemplify the applications of the Science, Mr. Tennant 
accompanies his Classes to various Museums in London, including the Museum of 
Practical Geology and the British Museum ; also on excursions into the country, in 
which the actual field-work of the Geologist is explained and illustrated. 

The above Lectures commence at King's College in January and end at Easter. 

Private Instruction on the above subjects is also given at 149, Strand, W.C., by 
Prof. Tennant, who can also supply Elementary Collections of Minerals, Eocks, and 
Fossils, Apparatus, Books, Maps, Charts, Geological Hammers, &c. 



^KHHI SI 



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